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Birds

Birds - Seagull
A broad term that applies to all species of birds.

Birds are a group of endothermic vertebrates characterized by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong, lightweight skeleton. With approximately ten thousand species, birds rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, with more than half of those being passerines.

Collision with wind turbine blades can kill birds, though the impact of individual deaths on the greater population varies greatly based on species. Research continues to explore mitigation such as operation limitations, siting location, and lighting selection. Bird collisions with offshore wind turbines present an additional challenge of being unable to count bodies to determine the scale of mortality. Marine renewable energy devices likely pose little threat to diving birds colliding with tidal turbines, or birds colliding with floating wave energy devices. Birds are classified in the following categories:

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Birds.

Total: 2897

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Which is worse for wildlife, wind farms or oil drilling? Hardach, S. Magazine Article Wind Energy Attraction, Collision, Displacement, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals
Eoldist, a Web Application for Estimating Cautionary Detection Distance of Birds by Automatic Detection Systems to Reduce Collisions With Wind Turbines Fluhr, J., Duriez, O., Blary, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds
Environmental Effects of Offshore Wind Energy in the Gulf of Mexico: Compilation of Educational Research Briefs [Booklet] Severy, M., Farr, H., Richlen, M. Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Update knowledge base for bird species vulnerable for collisions with offshore wind turbines (2025) - Description of available knowledge to be used within KEC 6.0 Bebbington, K., Ijntema, G.J., Potiek, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
System impacts of wind energy developments: Key research challenges and opportunities McKenna, R., Lilliestam, J., Heinrichs, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
Resource selection and survival of plains sharp-tailed grouse at a wind energy facility Kelly, C., LeBeau, C., Beck, J. Journal Article Wind Energy Birds
Impact of Wind Energy on Flying Wildlife in Leading Wind Energy Producing Countries of Latin America: Challenges and Priorities WREN, Rivera, M., Rebolo, N. Summary Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Bats, Birds
A Fuzzy Logic Technique for the Environmental Impact Assessment of Marine Renewable Energy Power Plants Flores, P., Mendoza, E. Journal Article Marine Energy, Ocean Current, OTEC, Tidal, Wave Attraction, Avoidance, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Visual Impacts
Wind energy development in Latin America and the Caribbean: Risk assessment for flying vertebrates Rebolo-Ifran, N., Nicolas A. L., Lambertucci, S. A. Journal Article Wind Energy Bats, Birds, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Floating Offshore Wind Energy Infrastructure Nielsen, K., Robertson, B., Sierman, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning, Stakeholder Engagement
Ornithological and Marine Mammal Baseline Characterisation Surveys for the POSEIDON project: January-March (Seasonal) Report – South-West Celtic Sea Young, S., Martin, L. Report Birds, Seabirds, Marine Mammals
Ornithological and Marine Mammal Baseline Characterisation Surveys for the POSEIDON project: October-December (Seasonal) Report – South-West Celtic Sea Young, S., Steinmetz, K., Davitt, V. Report Birds, Seabirds, Marine Mammals
Ornithological and Marine Mammal Baseline Characterisation Surveys for the POSEIDON project: April-June (Seasonal) Report – South-West Celtic Sea Young, S., Davitt, V. Report Birds, Seabirds, Marine Mammals
Bilan environnemental 2023 du parc éolien en mer de Saint-Brieuc Iberdrola Renewables Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Lighting, Noise Bats, Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Developing the Offshore Wind that Birds Need Seavy, N., Wojcicki, S., Madden, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Lighting, Noise Birds, Passerines, Seabirds, Shorebirds, Waterfowl, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement
Cumulative collision risk and population-level consequences of industrial wind-power plant development for two vulture species: A quantitative warning Bounas, A., Vasilakis, D., Kret, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Offshore Wind Evidence and Change Programme: Annual Report 2024 The Crown Estate Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy
Mapping relative risk to seabirds from offshore wind energy developments in Danish waters Isojunno, S., Scott-Hayward, L., Thomsen, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Passerines, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Will red-crowned cranes avoid coastal wind farms? A research based on satellite tracking in Yancheng coastal wetland Hu, X., Wu, D., Chen, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance Birds, Shorebirds
Potential feeding sites for seabirds and marine mammals reveal large overlap with offshore wind energy development worldwide Morant, J., Payo-Payo, A., Maria-Valera, A. Journal Article Wind Energy Birds, Seabirds, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Cetacean and Seabird Data Collected During the Hawaiian Islands Cetacean and Ecosystem Assessment Survey (HICEAS), July–December 2023 Yano, K. M., Oleson, E., McCullough, J. L. K. Report Birds, Seabirds, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Shetland Tidal Array Monitoring Report July 2023 to June 2024 Smith, K. Report Marine Energy, Tidal Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Environmental Effects Monitoring Program Annual Report 2024 Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy (FORCE) Report Marine Energy, Tidal Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Long-term trends in abundance and potential drivers for eight species of coastal birds in the U.S. South Atlantic Craig, J., Siegfried, K., Cheshire, R. Journal Article Birds, Seabirds
Behavioral and functional responses of different bird clades to offshore windfarms in yellow sea, China Liu, W., Yuan, S., Shen, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Scenarios for Replacing Conventional Energy With Offshore Renewable Energy Along the Central California Coast Ruttenberg, B., Wang, Y., Walter, R. Report Wind Energy, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement, Entanglement, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
Development of a collision impact indicator to integrate in the life cycle assessment of offshore wind farms Baulaz, Y., Araignous, E., Pérez-López, P. Journal Article Wind Energy Collision Birds, Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Offshore wind and impacts on migratory waterfowl of the Atlantic flyway White, M. Thesis Wind Energy Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Passerines, Seabirds, Waterfowl, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Risk4DRaptors: Prédire les risques de collision des grands oiseaux avec les infrastructures aériennes Hemery, A. Thesis Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance Birds, Raptors
Breeding Behaviour and Health & Safety Implications of Kittiwakes Nesting on Offshore Substations Surrounding Walney Two Wind Farm Consadine, E., Parker, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Effects of wind turbine dimensions on the collision risk of raptors: A simulation approach based on flight height distributions Schaub, T., Klaassen, R., Zutter, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Auks in the German North Sea: Effects of Offshore Wind Farms. A study into Common Guillemot (Uria aalge) and Razorbill (Alca torda) distribution based on aerial and ship survey data in the German North Sea Szostek, L., Vilela, R., Bauch, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Birds, Seabirds
Survey of Birds for Offshore Wind Farms in Danish Waters – North Sea I Petersen, I., Thomsen, H., Scott-Hayward, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Wave and Tidal Energy: Evaluation of Feasibility, Costs, and Benefits Senate Bill 605 Report Lee, S., Strong, V., Aspen Environmental Group Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
MASTS ASM 2024 Workshop Proceeding: Tracking Top Predators in Marine Renewable Energy Development Areas Sutherland, J. Marine Energy, Wind Energy Attraction, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Guidance on biodiversity cumulative impact assessment for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure Bennun, L., Fletcher, C., Cook, A. Guidance Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
Developing a population model for Rum Manx Shearwaters for assessing offshore wind farm impacts and conservation measures Matthiopoulos, J., Furness, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
How should the use of offshore wind farms by birds be approached and should it be encouraged? Henry, S., Bourgeois, K., Cadiou, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Birds
Feasibility of strategic ornithological compensatory measures in the Scottish context Tapia-Harris, C., Evans, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Investigating Avian habitat modification and behavioral dynamics in active wind farm environments Salkanovic, E., Enevoldsen, P., Xydis, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds

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