Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents Related to Fixed Offshore Wind

Total results: 3208
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Robust real-time detection of right whale upcalls using neural networks on the edge Hyer, M., Anderson, A., Mann, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Oceanographic HF Radar Data Preservation in Wind Turbine Trockel, J., Trockel, D., Whelan, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Navigation
A flexible framework for species based regional cumulative effects assessments to support offshore wind energy planning and management Ferguson, M., Williams, K., Goodale, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Towards a Synergistic Multi-Use in the North Sea Satish, A., Respinis, M., Breuer, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
Assessing the availability and feasibility of renewable energy on the Great Barrier Reef-Australia Virah-Sawmy, D., Sturmberg, B., Harrison, D. Journal Article Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Short and long-term exposure of marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) to an aluminum salt and to the cocktail of elements released by galvanic anode cathodic protection (GACP): impact on survival, growth, reproduction and behavior Blanc-Legendre, M., Gosselin, T., Caplat, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals Fish, Demersal Fish
Offshore Wind Impact on Oceanographic Processes: North Carolina to New York, Volume 1 - RPS Georgas, N., Garavelli, L., Codiga, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Wind Energy and Whales: TBC Industry Briefing Note The Biodiversity Consultancy Guidance Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Entanglement, Noise, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Coupling metal concentrations and drift simulations for tracing emissions from offshore wind farms Ebeling, A., Wippermann, D., Zimmermann, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals Physical Environment
Understanding the roles, limits, and best practices for community benefit agreements in U.S. offshore wind development Bingham, J., Miller, E., Ruscetta, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
Multi-sensor Arrays Provide Complementary Information on Bat Presence and Activity in the Offshore Environment Amichai, E., Forcey, G., Vukovich, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision Bats
The impacts of human-made structures on larval connectivity in the northern North Sea Barton, B., De Dominicis, M., Woolf, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Invertebrates
WWRM-Proceedings-May-2025 Gottlieb, I. Workshop Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Bats, Birds
Harbour porpoise trends and offshore wind farm effects in the German Bight North Sea Rose, A., Braasch, A., Diederichs, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Metagenomic biodiversity assessment within an offshore wind farm Serivichyaswat, P., Scholte, T., Wilms, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Water Quality
Wind, Solar and Tidal Stream: Unleashing the Full Value of Welsh Renewables RenewableUK, Marine Energy Wales, Solar Energy UK Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Electric Fields Induced by Water Movement in Proximity to HVDC Submarine Cables Rzempoluch, J., Goddard, K., Chaudhary, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF
South Fork Wind Benthic Monitoring Program: Sediment Profile and Plan View Imaging (SPI/PV), ROV-based Sampling, and Sediment Grab Sampling INSPIRE Environmental Website Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Frequently Asked Questions: Offshore Wind and Whales Whale Communications Committee Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Displacement, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Science priorities to evaluate the effects of offshore wind energy development on fish and fisheries in the Gulf of America Sura, S. , Czaja, R., Brugnone,N. Journal Article Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Changes in Flow, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Recreation & Tourism
Transport mechanisms of particulate emissions from artificial marine structures Czerner, N., Windt, C., Goseberg, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Physical Environment, Water Quality
Framework for assessing species vulnerability whilst on migration to a spatially explicit anthropogenic pressure Green, R., Burton, N., Cook, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Waterfowl
Underwater Noise Conflict Resolution: Framework Report Xodus Group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Coastal Evolution Due To Climate Change And The Impact On Cables In The Landfall Zone Cadiou, O, Yates, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Improving Decision Making In Relation to Offshore Wind Australian Marine Conservation Society, Australian Centre for Offshore Wind Energy, Biodiversity Council Australia Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
Relative abundance, seasonal occurrence, and distribution of marine birds in the northern Gulf of Mexico Haney, C., Michael, P., Gleason, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds, Shorebirds
Exploratory Cross-Scale Characterization of Oceanographic Data Surrounding Offshore Wind Areas Noor, N. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
A comprehensive look into the sustainability of wind power Das Karmakar, S., Chattopadhyay, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Seabirds in 3D: A Framework to Evaluate Collision Vulnerability with Future Offshore Wind Developments - Interim Project Report #2: Assessing Tradeoffs between Seabird Density at Collision Risk Height and Wind Facility Performance Wallach, E., Chamberlin, C., Schneider, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Biodiversity Information of benthic Species at ARtificial structures - BISAR Dannheim, J., Kloss, P., Vanaverbeke, J. Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Offshore Wind Energy: Actions Needed to Address Gaps in Interior's Oversight of Development Rusco, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Displacement Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Chemical emissions from offshore wind farms: From identification to challenges in impact assessment and regulation Hengstmann, E., Corella, P., Alter, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Chemicals Physical Environment, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Enhancing marine wildlife observations: the application of tethered balloon systems and advanced imaging sensors for sustainable marine energy development Amerson, A., Dexheimer, D. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Pile driving sound induces short-term behavioral changes in black sea bass (Centropristis striata): A field study Jarriel, S., Jézéquel, Y., Formel, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish
Visual fields, foraging and collision vulnerability in gulls (Laridae) Cantlay, J., Portugal, S., Martin, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Challenges and Solutions for Offshore Wind Farm Cumulative Effects Assessments for Marine Mammals Sinclair, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Collision effects of North Sea wind turbines on bird species within the Kader Ecologie & Cumulatie (KEC) 5.0 Ijntema, G.J., Heida, N., Leemans, J.J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Effect size as a measure of biological relevance for offshore wind impact studies Methratta, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Wind Energy in Canada: Charting an Ecologically Sustainable Future from International Law and Policy Coordinates and State Practices Alikhani, M. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, Noise Bats, Birds
Multicriteria models provide enhanced insight for siting US offshore wind Santarromana, R., Abdulla, A., Morgan, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Navigation, Recreation & Tourism, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement, Visual Impacts
Displaying 1 - 40 of 3208 results