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Fixed Offshore Wind

Fixed Offshore Wind Energy Foundation Types
Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3983

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Understanding Economic Impacts to the Commercial Surfclam Fishing Industry from Offshore Wind Energy Development Munroe, D., Powell, E., Klinck, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Mitigating Negative Impacts of Marine Renewable Energy on Biodiversity: The Role of International Environmental Law Marauhn, T., Böhringer, A-M., Jaś-Nowopolska, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Assessing the Balance Between Nature and People in European Seas: Maritime Spatial Planning in the North-East Atlantic Ocean World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Measurement of effects of pile driving in the Borssele wind farm zone on the seals in the Dutch Delta area version II Brasseur, S., Aarts, G., Schop, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Displacement, Noise Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
10 Recommendations: How to improve Maritime Spatial Planning to reach European climate, energy and biodiversity targets Offshore Coalition For Energy & Nature (OCEaN) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Offshore and coastline migration of radio-tagged Nathusius' pipistrelles Bach, P., Voigt, C., Göttsche, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Bats
Do people prefer offshore to onshore wind energy? The role of ownership and intended use Linnerud, K., Dugstad, A., Rygg, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
"We could have been leaders": The rise and fall of offshore wind energy on the political agenda in Ireland Roux, J-P., Fitch-Roy, O., Devine-Wright, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix O: In-Air Acoustic Assessment Tetra Tech Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix J: Preliminary Cable Burial Risk Assessment Tetra Tech Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix V: Benthic Resource Characterization Reports RPS group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix S: Ornithological and Marine Fauna Aerial Survey Results APEM Ltd, Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Fish
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix M: Sediment Transport Modeling Report Tetra Tech Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix W: Essential Fish Habitat Assessment Tetra Tech Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix T: Offshore Bat Acoustic Survey Report Tetra Tech Inc. Report Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Kitty Hawk North Wind Construction and Operations Plan Tetra Tech Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix U: Assessment of the Potential Effects of the Kitty Hawk Offshore Wind Project on Bats and Birds Biodiversity Research Institute Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Environmental Effects of U.S. Offshore Wind Energy Development: Compilation of Educational Research Briefs Green, R., Hein, C., Oteri, F. Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles
Financing Offshore Wind Guillet, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Current state of knowledge Electromagnetic fields: Electromagnetic fields and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive Descriptor 11 Energy Hermans, A., Schilt, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Reef effect of offshore structures on the occurrence and foraging activity of harbour porpoises Fernandez-Betelu, O., Graham, I., Thompson, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Evaluation of a coastal acoustic buoy for cetacean detections, bearing accuracy and exclusion zone monitoring Palmer, K., Tabbutt, S., Gillespie, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
International assessment of priority environmental issues for land-based and offshore wind energy development Green, R., Gill, E., Hein, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
Windfarms, fishing and benthic recovery: Overlaps, risks and opportunities Dunkley, F., Solandt, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Pile driving repeatedly impacts the giant scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) Jézéquel, Y., Cones, S., Jensen, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Invertebrates
Categorizing Active Marine Acoustic Sources Based on Their Potential to Affect Marine Animals Ruppel, C., Weber, T., Staaterman, E. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Vineyard Wind 1 Demersal Trawl Survey Summer 2022 Seasonal Report Rillahan, C., He, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
2020 Drop Camera Survey of Benthic Communities and Substrate in the 501N Study Area and an adjacent Control Area Stokesbury, K., Riley, C., Lego, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Physical Environment
To study the effect on marine ecosystems of noise emitted by offshore wind farms during construction and operation phases, is it relevant to focus on a few species? Henry, S., Ceyrac, L., Le Courtois, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Noise
Prinses Amalia Windturbine park 2022 Leewis, L., Klink, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Chemical Emissions from Offshore Wind Farms - Summary of the Project OffChEm Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals Physical Environment, Water Quality
Environmental Impact Assessment for the decommissioning of offshore wind farms Hall, R., Topham, E., João, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Can the development of offshore renewable energy projects and their shore connection have an effect on the evolution of the coastline? Henry, S., Cartier, A., Duperrent, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Vulnerability of pelagic seabirds to the introduction of offshore renewable energy infrastructure off the Irish coast Murphy, E., Jessopp, M. Research Study Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Assessment of compensatory measures for impacts of offshore windfarms on seabirds McGregor, R., Trinder, M., Goodship, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions
Future environmental scenarios for offshore wind expansion Still, D., Pacitto, S., Miller, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Assessing the potential for offshore infrastructure as platforms for environmental monitoring Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
RAPPORT D'ACTIVITÉ MR10 ANNÉE N+2 MAZIERE, H., LABORIE, J., Pineaux, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Passive Acoustic Telemetry as a Tool to Monitor the Baseline Presence and Persistence of Highly Migratory Fish Species in Popular Recreational Fishing Grounds within the Southern New England Wind Energy Area Gervelis, B., Kneebone, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement Fish, Pelagic Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Boosting offshore wind skills for environmental professions Munro, P., Elliot, M., Mazik, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions

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