Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3733

Searches title and abstract.
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Wozep midterm evaluation 2021 Odinga, J., Barbé, D., van Mastrigt, A. Report Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Legal & Policy
The contribution of ocean-based solutions to carbon reduction in China Feng, C., Ye, G., Jiang, Q. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Evaluation of the Coastal Acoustic Buoy for offshore wind for real time mitigation of North Atlantic right whales Palmer, K. , Turner, J., Tabbutt, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species WREN, Rumes, B., Kerckhof, F. Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Monitoring and Modeling Tree Bat (Genera: Lasiurus, Lasionycteris) Occurrence Using Acoustics on Structures off the Mid-Atlantic Coast—Implications for Offshore Wind Development True, M., Reynolds, R., Ford, W. Journal Article Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision Bats
An indicator for assessing the status of marine-bird habitats affected by multiple human activities: A novel statistical approach Mercker, M., Dierschke, V., Camphuysen, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind COP Appendix II-F4: Bat Survey Report Biodiversity Research Institute Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Vineyard Wind Demersal Trawl Survey 2020/2021 Annual Report Rillahan, C., He, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related to Munitions and Explosives of Concern and Unexploded Ordnances Middleton, P., Salerno, J., Barnhart, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
A new seabed mobility index for the Irish Sea: Modelling seabed shear stress and classifying sediment mobilisation to help predict erosion, deposition, and sediment distribution Coughlan, M., Guerrini, M., Creane, S. Journal Article Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Maryland Offshore Wind Construction and Operations Plan: Appendix II N1 - Avian Risk Assessment ESS Group, Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix B: Fisheries Communication Plan Sunrise Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Maryland Offshore Wind Construction and Operations Plan: Appendix II F2 - Fisheries Assessment Report Sea Risk Solutions Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Maryland Offshore Wind Construction and Operations Plan: Appendix II F1 - Fisheries Communication Plan Sea Risk Solutions Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Underestimated Scale of Songbird Offshore Migration Across the South-Eastern North Sea during Autumn Brust, V., Hüppop, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Passerines
Floating offshore wind turbine aerodynamics: Trends and future challenges Micallef, D., Rezaeiha, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow
Oceanic records of North American bats and implications for offshore wind energy development in the United States Solick, D., Newman, C. Journal Article Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction Bats
Automatic Segregation of Pelagic Habitats Plonus, R-M., Vogl, S., Floeter, J. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Offshore Wind Energy NOPSEMA Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Adaptive marine spatial planning in the Netherlands sector of the North Sea de Vrees, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
The impacts of offshore wind farms on local tourism and recreation: a research study Glasson, J., Durning, B., Welch, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Recreation & Tourism, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement, Visual Impacts
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy: Volume 3: Results (Turtles) Pembroke, A., Robinson Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy: Volume 5: Results (Sharks and Rays) Pembroke, A., Robinson Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Methods Toolkit for Participatory Engagement and Social Research Haggett, C., Mabon, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Risks to different populations and age classes of gannets from impacts of offshore wind farms in the southern North Sea Pollock, C., Lane, J., Buckingham, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Cumulative impacts of wind farms on the North Sea ecosystem Piet, G., Tamis, J., van der Wal, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
Threading a moving needle: The spatial dimensions characterizing US offshore wind policy drivers Russell, A., Bingaman, S., Garcia, H-M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
First Inventory of technical performance and biodiversity on structures in the North Sea Farmers’ Offshore Test Site Kardinaal, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates
State of Maine Offshore Wind Energy Research Array: Application for an Outer Continental Shelf Renewable Energy Research Lease State of Maine Report Tidal, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Bayesian network modelling provides spatial and temporal understanding of ecosystem dynamics within shallow shelf seas Trifonova, N., Scott, B., De Dominicis, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy: Volume 4: Results (Marine Mammals) Pembroke, A., Robinson Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
A Review of Biodiversity Data Needs and Monitoring Protocols for the Offshore Wind Energy Sector in the Baltic Sea and North Sea Stephenson, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
International good practices for facilitating transboundary collaboration in Marine Spatial Planning Kull, M., Moodie, J., Thomas, H. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy: Volume 2: Results (Birds) Pembroke, A., Robinson Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals
Design, production, and validation of the biological and structural performance of an ecologically engineered concrete block mattress: A Nature-Inclusive Design for shoreline and offshore construction Sella, I., Hadary, T., Rella, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates
The Design, Production and Validation of the Biological and Structural Performance of an Ecologically Engineered Concrete Block Mattress – A Nature Inclusive Design for Shoreline and Offshore construction Sella, I., Hadary, T., Rella, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Development and Marine Mammals Marine Mammal Commission Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Comments on Commercial Leasing for Wind Power Development on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Offshore Morro Bay, California, East and West Extensions Flick, P., Hislop, K., Humphries, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Reptiles
American Bird Conservancy Comments on the Morro Bay Offshore Wind Call for Information American Bird Conservancy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Human Dimensions
Masking release at 4 kHz in harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) associated with sinusoidal amplitude-modulated masking noise Kastelein, R., Helder-Hoek, L., Covi, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
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