Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents Related to Fixed Offshore Wind

Total results: 3197
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Offshore Wind Energy and Benthic Habitat Changes: Lessons from Block Island Wind Farm Hutchison, Z., Bartley, M., Degraer, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Development in the Northeast US Shelf Large Marine Ecosystem: Ecological, Human, and Fishery Management Dimensions Methratta, E., Hawkins, A., Hooker, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Wind Projects and Fisheries: Conflict and Engagement in the United Kingdom and the United States Haggett, C., ten Brink, T., Russell, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
Introduction to the Special Issue on: Understanding the Effects of Offshore Wind Development on Fisheries Twigg, E., Roberts, S., Hofmann, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Considerations for Offshore Wind Energy Development Effects on Fish and Fisheries in the United States: A Review of Existing Studies, New Efforts, and Opportunities for Innovation Perry, R., Heyman, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Does galvanic cathodic protection by aluminum anodes impact marine organisms? Bell, A., von der Au, M., Regnery, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Chemicals Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
BOEM Center for Marine Acoustics Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Website Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Advancing the U.S. Offshore Renewable Energy Industry Through Marine Renewable and Offshore Wind Energy Development Gorton, A., Overhus, D. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Balancing risks of injury and disturbance to marine mammals when pile driving at offshore windfarms Thompson, P., Graham, I., Cheney, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Habitat-based density estimates for cetaceans in the California Current Ecosystem based on 1991–2018 survey data Becker, E., Forney, K., Miller, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Assessing the exposure of three diving bird species to offshore wind areas on the U.S. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf using satellite telemetry Stenhouse, I., Berlin, A., Gilbert, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Could federal wind farms influence continental shelf oceanography and alter associated ecological processes? A literature review. Miles, T., Murphy, S., Kohut, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Beyond the beach: Tradeoffs in tourism and recreation at the first offshore wind farm in the United States Smythe, T., Bidwell, D., Moore, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Recreation & Tourism
Offshore Wind Energy Resource in the Kingdom of Morocco: Assessment of the Seasonal Potential Variability Based on Satellite Data Benazzouz, A., Mabchour, H., El Had, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Vulnerability of northern gannets to offshore wind farms; seasonal and sex-specific collision risk and demographic consequences Lane, J., Jeavons, R., Deakin, Z. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Recommendations for the quantitative assessment of metal inputs in the marine environment from the galvanic anodes of offshore renewable energy structures Michelet, N., Julian, N., Duarte, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Chemicals Physical Environment, Water Quality
Moray East Construction Survey Summary Report Moray Offshore Wind Farm (East) Limited Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Public preferences for wind farms involving electricity trade and citizen engagement in Ireland Brennan, N., Van Rensburg, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
A spatial food web model to investigate potential spillover effects of a fishery closure in an offshore wind farm Halouani, G., Villanueva, C-M., Raoux, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Recreational boaters' preferences for boating trips associated with offshore wind farms in US waters Dalton, T., Weir, M., Calianos,A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Effects of offshore windfarms on seabird abundance: Strong effects in spring and in the breeding season Peschko, V., Mendel, B., Müller, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Coastal Virginia Offshore Wind Noise monitoring during monopile installation A01 and A02 WaterProof Marine Consultancy & Services BV., Dominion Energy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
How loud is the underwater noise from operating offshore wind turbines? Tougaard, J., Hermannsen, L., Madsen, P. Journal Article Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Environmental Impact Assessment, Marine Spatial Planning
Guidance document on wind energy developments and EU nature legislation European Commission Guidance Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Enabling Renewable Energy While Protecting Wildlife: An Ecological Risk-Based Approach to Wind Energy Development Using Ecosystem-Based Management Values Copping, A., Gorton, A., May, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement
Cumulative effects of marine renewable energy and climate change on ecosystem properties: Sensitivity of ecological network analysis Noguès, Q., Raoux, A., Araignous, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Fish, Human Dimensions
Seiche to Monitor Impact on Marine Mammals at Hornsea Two Construction ON&T Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Accelerating Energy Innovation for the Blue Economy The Economist Intelligence Unit Report Marine Energy, OTEC, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
Low-carbon lock-in? Exploring transformative innovation policy and offshore wind energy pathways in the Netherlands van der Loos, A., Negro, S., Hekkert, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Octopus’s garden under the blade: Boosting biodiversity increases willingness to pay for offshore wind in the United States Klain, S., Satterfield, T., Chan, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Demersal Fish, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Impact of the use of offshore wind and other marine renewables on European fisheries Stelzenmüller, V., Gimpel, A., Letschert, J. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy
SEER Factsheet SEER Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Cumulative Noise Impacts to Marine Mammals from Offshore Wind Development and Operations Southall, B., Rosenbaum, H. Workshop Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
PelagiCam: a novel underwater imaging system with computer vision for semi-automated monitoring of mobile marine fauna at offshore structures Sheehan, E., Bridger, D., Nancollas, S. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Invertebrates
Mapping the subaquatic animals in the Aquatocene: Offshore wind power, the materialities of the sea and animal soundscapes Wang, C., Chien, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Cetaceans
The regional economic impacts of offshore wind energy developments in Scotland Connolly, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Levelised cost of energy, A challenge for offshore wind Johnston, B., Foley, A., Doran, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Validation of a Hydrodynamics and Sediment Transport Modeling Framework for the Evaluation of Offshore Wind Farms Jones, C., Chang, G., Magalen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Synthesis of the Science Workshop: Day 3 Summary Consensus Building Institute Workshop Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data
Offshore Wind Energy and the Fishing Industry in the Northeastern USA Pol, M., Ford, K. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
Displaying 1001 - 1040 of 3197 results