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Fixed Offshore Wind

Fixed Offshore Wind Energy Foundation Types
Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3854

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix P1: Avian and Bat Risk Assessment Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix J1: Offshore EMF Assessment Exponent Engineering P.C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles
Mapping the collision risk between two gull species and offshore wind turbines: Modelling and validation Mikami, K., Kazama, K., Kazama, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
The Ongoing Conflict between Offshore Wind Farms and the Fishing Industry in the North Sea Reckhaus, N. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Reviewing the ecological impacts of offshore wind farms Galparsoro, I., Menchaca, I., Garmendia, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix I1: Underwater Acoustic Assessment Kusel, E., Weirathmueller, M., Koessler, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
The Potential Compatibility of Designating Offshore Wind Farms within Wider Marine Protected Areas—Conservation of the Chinese White Dolphin Regarding Fishers’ Perception Jhan, H-T., Lee, H-T., Ting, K-H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of California Commercial Fisheries from 2005 to 2019 and Potential Overlap with Offshore Wind Energy Development Wang, Y-H., Walter, R., White, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Do views of offshore wind energy detract? A hedonic price analysis of the Block Island wind farm in Rhode Island Dong, L., Lang, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
Comparing distribution of harbour porpoise using generalized additive models and hierarchical Bayesian models with integrated nested laplace approximation Williamson, L., Scott, B., Laxton, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Generalized changes of benthic communities after construction of wind farms in the southern North Sea Coolen, J., Vanaverbeke, J., Dannheim, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
The Atlantic surfclam fishery and offshore wind energy development: 2. Assessing economic impacts Scheld, A., Beckensteiner, J., Munroe, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Workshop Summary on Passive Acoustic Monitoring Data Standards and Management: March 7 and 9, 2022 Baker, K., Staaterman, E., Shumchenia, E. Workshop Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Noise Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Assessing the Impact of Offshore Wind Power Deployment on Fishery: A Synthetic Control Approach Shimada, H., Asano, K., Nagai, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data
Strategic Monitoring and its Approaches: Setting Out a General Definition and its Application Gregory, S., Lonsdale, J., Mulholland, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind COP Appendix II-L2: Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Presence Biodiversity Research Institute Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Chasing the offshore wind farm wind-wake-induced upwelling/downwelling dipole Floeter, J., Pohlmann, T., Harmer, A Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Wind Lease Issuance, Site Characterization, and Site Assessment: Central and Northern California Reeb, D., Schroeder, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Research progress and prospects of gliding robots applied in ocean observation Tian, B., Guo, J., Song, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix I2: Onshore Acoustic Assessment Exponent Engineering P.C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
End of Life Materials Mapping for Offshore Wind in Scotland Bennet, L., Spyroudi, A., Stevenson, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
The Vectron Project: Final Report Culina, J., Taylor, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
A framework for categorizing the interactions of offshore windfarms and fisheries Stokesbury, K., Fay, G., Griffin, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
New England Wind COP Appendix III-M: Assessing the Potential Acoustic Impact on Marine Fauna during Construction of New England Wind Epsilon Associates Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Vulnerability and spatial competition: The case of fisheries and offshore wind projects Hélène, B., Marjolaine, F., Christelle, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Do magnetic fields related to submarine power cables affect the functioning of a common bivalve? Jakubowska-Lehrmann, M., Białowąs, M., Otremba, Z. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Invertebrates
A review of support tools to assess multi-sector interactions in the emerging offshore Blue Economy Turschwell, M. P., Hayes, M. A., Lacharite, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
State-of-the-art review of the flexibility and feasibility of emerging offshore and coastal ocean energy technologies in East and Southeast Asia Li, M., Luo, H., Zhou, S. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
Spatial Modeling to Support Sustainable Offshore Wind Energy Development for California Degagne, R., Gough, M., Joseph, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Maryland Offshore Wind Public Scoping Report BOEM Office of Renewable Energy Programs Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Recreation & Tourism
The local socio-economic impacts of offshore wind farms Glasson, J., Durning, B., Welch, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Wind energy in the city: Hong Kong’s offshore wind energy generation potential, deployment plans, and ecological pitfalls Delina, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals, Collision, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Human Dimensions
Kurtosis analysis of sounds from down-the-hole pile installation and the implications for marine mammal auditory impairment Guan, S., Brookens, T., Miner, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Particle motion observed during offshore wind turbine piling operation Sigray, P., Linne, M., Andersson, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Offshore Construction Sounds and Marine Life BOEM Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Revolution Wind COP Appendix Z2: Protected Species Mitigation and Monitoring Plan (PSMMP): Sea Turtles and ESA-Listed Fish Species LGL Ecological Research Associates, Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Development of a Novel Physiology Tag to Measure Oxygen Consumption in Free-Ranging Seabirds McKnight, C., Bogdanova, M., Butler, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Displacement Birds, Seabirds
Offshore Wind Priority Conflict Topics for Marine Mammals and Birds Courbis, S., Pacini, A., Williams, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Shorebirds, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Convergence of emerging technologies: development of a risk-based paradigm for marine mammal monitoring for offshore wind energy operations Macrander, A., Brzuzy, L., Raghukumar, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
Offshore wind farms contribute to epibenthic biodiversity in the North Sea ter Hofstede, R., Driessen, F., Elzinga, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment

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