Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3803

Searches title and abstract.
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Automatic Segregation of Pelagic Habitats Plonus, R-M., Vogl, S., Floeter, J. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Risks to different populations and age classes of gannets from impacts of offshore wind farms in the southern North Sea Pollock, C., Lane, J., Buckingham, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Cumulative impacts of wind farms on the North Sea ecosystem Piet, G., Tamis, J., van der Wal, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
Methods Toolkit for Participatory Engagement and Social Research Haggett, C., Mabon, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
International good practices for facilitating transboundary collaboration in Marine Spatial Planning Kull, M., Moodie, J., Thomas, H. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Threading a moving needle: The spatial dimensions characterizing US offshore wind policy drivers Russell, A., Bingaman, S., Garcia, H-M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy: Volume 3: Results (Turtles) Pembroke, A., Robinson Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy: Volume 5: Results (Sharks and Rays) Pembroke, A., Robinson Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Bayesian network modelling provides spatial and temporal understanding of ecosystem dynamics within shallow shelf seas Trifonova, N., Scott, B., De Dominicis, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
State of Maine Offshore Wind Energy Research Array: Application for an Outer Continental Shelf Renewable Energy Research Lease State of Maine Report Tidal, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Adaptive marine spatial planning in the Netherlands sector of the North Sea de Vrees, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy: Volume 4: Results (Marine Mammals) Pembroke, A., Robinson Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
A Review of Biodiversity Data Needs and Monitoring Protocols for the Offshore Wind Energy Sector in the Baltic Sea and North Sea Stephenson, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
First Inventory of technical performance and biodiversity on structures in the North Sea Farmers’ Offshore Test Site Kardinaal, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy: Volume 2: Results (Birds) Pembroke, A., Robinson Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals
Offshore Wind Energy NOPSEMA Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
The impacts of offshore wind farms on local tourism and recreation: a research study Glasson, J., Durning, B., Welch, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Recreation & Tourism, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement, Visual Impacts
Impact of offshore wind development on seabirds in the North Sea and Baltic Sea: Identification of data sources and at-risk species Piggott, A., Vulcano, A., Mitchell, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Design, production, and validation of the biological and structural performance of an ecologically engineered concrete block mattress: A Nature-Inclusive Design for shoreline and offshore construction Sella, I., Hadary, T., Rella, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates
The Design, Production and Validation of the Biological and Structural Performance of an Ecologically Engineered Concrete Block Mattress – A Nature Inclusive Design for Shoreline and Offshore construction Sella, I., Hadary, T., Rella, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Development and Marine Mammals Marine Mammal Commission Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
American Bird Conservancy Comments on the Morro Bay Offshore Wind Call for Information American Bird Conservancy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Human Dimensions
Comments on Commercial Leasing for Wind Power Development on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Offshore Morro Bay, California, East and West Extensions Flick, P., Hislop, K., Humphries, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Reptiles
Masking release at 4 kHz in harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) associated with sinusoidal amplitude-modulated masking noise Kastelein, R., Helder-Hoek, L., Covi, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Identifying Ecological Metrics and Sampling Strategies for Baseline Monitoring During Offshore Wind Development Brodie, J., Kohut, J., Zemeckis, D. Workshop Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Kriegers Flak Siemens Gamesa Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Integration of sustainability, stakeholder and process approaches for sustainable offshore wind farm decommissioning Spielmann, V., Brey, T., Dannheim, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
RAPPORT D’ACTIVITÉ MR10 ANNÉE N+1 MAZIERE, H., Le Guen, M., LABORIE, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Ecological Baseline Studies of the US Outer Continental Shelf Willmot, J., Forcey, G., Vukovich, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
When speed matters: The importance of flight speed in an avian collision risk model Masden, E., Cook, A., McCluskie, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
Document cadre de la MR9 Réduire les dérangements de la halte migratoire du Puffin des Baléares Sadoul, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Beatrice Offshore Windfarm: Post-Construction Turbine Foundation Marine Ecology Survey Report (Year One) Cordingley, A., Hubble, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Assessing movements of Lesser Black-backed Gulls using GPS tracking devices in relation to the Walney Extension and Burbo Bank Extension Offshore Wind Farms Clewley, G., Thaxter, C., Humphreys, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Year 2 Digital Aerial Wildlife Survey of BOEM Lease Area OCS-A 520 Monthly Report (Year 2): May I 2021 Arundale, M., Warford, S., Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals
Year 2 Digital Aerial Wildlife Survey of BOEM Lease Area OCS-A 520 Monthly Report (Year 2): May II 2021 Arundale, M., Warford, S., Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals
Analysis of Underwater Noise Characteristics of Yangjiang Offshore Wind Farm During Construction Liang, Y., Ou, Z., Zhong, W. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
A roadmap towards quantitative cumulative impact assessments: Every step of the way Piet, G., Tamis, J., Volwater, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Noise Birds, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
Characterization of Impact Pile Driving Signals and Fin Whale Vocalizations at the Block Island Wind Farm Site Amaral, J. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Identifying and predicting occurrence and abundance of a vocal animal species based on individually specific calls Bailey, H., Fandel, A., Silva, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Distance-Based Sampling Methods for Assessing the Ecological Effects of Offshore Wind Farms: Synthesis and Application to Fisheries Resource Studies Methratta, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Physical Environment, Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Displaying 1281 - 1320 of 3803 results