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Fixed Offshore Wind

Fixed Offshore Wind Energy Foundation Types
Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3983

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Presence of Vessels: Effects of Vessel Collision on Marine Life Mahon, A., Oteri, F., Farr, H. Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Acoustic detection range of right whale upcalls identified in near-real time from a moored buoy and a Slocum glider Johnson, H., Taggart, C., Newhall, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Effects of operational off-shore wind farms on fishes and fisheries Svendsen, J., Ibanez-Erquiaga, B., Savina, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF, Noise Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Suitability for the development of flat oyster populations in new offshore wind farm zones and two search areas for restoration projects in the Dutch section of the North Sea Duren, L., Kamermans, P., Kleissen, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Evaluating Bat Roost Abundance: A Comparison of Drone-Acquired Thermal Imagery and Acoustic Recordings with Visual Observers Jaffe, K., Carter, R., Corcoran, A. Presentation Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Bats, Birds
Comments on the March 22, 2022 Study Outcomes from Conservation Biology Institute Project Workshop Flick, P., Kelly, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix AA1: Fisheries and Benthic Monitoring Plan Sunrise Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Moray East Vestas Wind Systems A/S Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Thames Estuary Harbour Porpoise Survey Report 2022 Zoological Society of London, Marine Conservation Research Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related to High Voltage Direct Current Cooling Systems Middleton, P., Barnhart, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
ThermalTracker-3D Offshore Validation Technical Report Matzner, S., Warfel, T., Hull, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds
Environmental Data Catalog for the Morro Bay Wind Energy Area Johnson, C., Currier, C., Howar, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles
Love thy neighbor (or not): Regionalism and support for the use of offshore wind energy by others Bidwell, D., Firestone, J., Ferguson, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data
Balancing profitability of energy production, societal impacts and biodiversity in offshore wind farm design Virtanen, E.A., Lappallainen, J., Nurmi, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data
Measuring and visualizing environmental and social impacts of wind energy projects Pian, A., Verhoef, J., De Vries, L. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Human Dimensions
From plate to plug: The impact of offshore renewables on European fisheries and the role of marine spatial planning Stelzenmüller, V., Letschert, J., Gimpel, A. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Adverse environmental impacts of wind farm installations and alternative research pathways to their mitigation Chowdhury, N., Shakib, M., Xu, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
Assessment of uncertain alternatives for co-located aquaculture and offshore wind farm in Tasmania Villalba, J., Abdussamie, N., Aryai, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Future offshore wind scenarios: an assessment of deployment drivers Arup Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix AA2: New York State Benthic Monitoring Plan INSPIRE Environmental Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Magnetic fields generated by the DC cables of offshore wind farms have no effect on spatial distribution or swimming behavior of lesser sandeel larvae (Ammodytes marinus) Cresci, A., Perrichon, P., Durif, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Pelagic Fish
Vineyard Wind Demersal Trawl Survey Winter 2022 Seasonal Report Rillahan, C., He, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
Demersal fish and invertebrate catches relative to construction and operation of North America's first offshore wind farm Wilber, D., Brown, L., Griffin, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Investigating avoidance and attraction responses in lesser black-backed gulls Larus fuscus to offshore wind farms Johnston, D., Thaxter, C., Boersch-Supan, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision Birds, Seabirds
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2021 Magnus, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Anthropogenic Mixing in Seasonally Stratified Shelf Seas by Offshore Wind Farm Infrastructure Dorrell, R., Lloyd, C., Lincoln, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Sandwich Terns in the Netherlands in 2019-2021 van Bemmelen, R., Courtens, W., Collier, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Seabirds
UK Offshore Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment 4 (OESEA4) UK Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Stakeholder Engagement
Mayflower Wind Fugro Geophysical Survey 2021 IHA Final Protected Species Observer Report Final Milne, S., RPS group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Co-existence in practice: a collaborative study of the effects of the Westermost Rough offshore wind development on the size distribution and catch rates of a commercially important lobster (Homarus gammarus) population Roach, M., Revill, A., Johnson, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Behavioral Responses of a Harbor Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) Depend on the Frequency Content of Pile-Driving Sounds Kastelein, R., Jong, C., Tougaard, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Northern gannet collision risk with wind turbines at the southern North Sea Collier, M., Potiek, A., Hin, V. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Cumulative impact assessment of collisions with existing and planned offshore wind turbines in the southern North Sea Potiek, A., Leemans, J., Middelveld, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
Evidence of Nocturnal Migration over Sea and Sex-Specific Migration Distance of Dutch Black-Headed Gulls Fijn, R., Govers, L., Lutterop, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Ontogeny and synchrony of diving behavior in Humpback whale mothers and calves on their breeding ground Huetz, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Scour and Cable Protection Decommissioning Study Peritus International Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Year 2 Digital Aerial Wildlife Survey of BOEM Lease Area OCS-A 520 Quarterly Report: July 2021 to October 2021 Arundale, M., Warford, S., Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
The reef effect induced by wind farms and their grid connection Couturier, L., Lecaillon, G., Lenfant, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Density maps of the herring gull for the Dutch continental shelf Soudijn, F., Chen, C., Potiek, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Man-made structures in the marine environment: A review of stakeholders' social and economic values and perceptions Elrick-Barr, C., Zimmerhackel, J., HIll, G. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data

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