Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents Related to Fixed Offshore Wind

Total results: 3196
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Offshore Wind Farms: Foundations and Influence on the Littoral Processes Esteban, M., López-Gutiérrez, J., Diez, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Intervisibility Analysis of an Offshore Wind Farm Using GIS Tools Errico, A., Guastaferro, F., Oliviero, C. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Visual Impacts
Risk Evaluation for Federally Listed (Roseate Tern, Piping Plover) or Candidate (Red Knot) Bird Species in Offshore Waters: A First Step for Managing the Potential Impacts of Wind Facility Development on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Burger, J., Gordon, C., Lawrence, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Shorebirds, Seabirds, Physical Environment, Birds
Effect of the Horns Rev 1 Offshore Wind Farm on Fish Communities: Follow-up Seven Years after Construction Leonhard, S., Stenberg, C., Støttrup, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
The implementation of the Birds and Habitats Directives in estuaries and coastal zones European Commission Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Renewable Energy and the Public: from NIMBY to Participation Devine-Wright, P. Book Wind Energy, Wave, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy, Land-Based Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Local Birds in and around the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee (OWEZ) Leopold, M., Dijkman, E., Teal, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Offshore Wind Farms - Ecological Effects of Noise and Habitat Alteration on Fish Andersson, M. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Habitat Change Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates, Fish, Demersal Fish
National Register of Historic Places Database National Park Service Website Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
A Sustainability Index for Offshore Wind Farms and Open Water Aquaculture Benassai, G., Stenberg, C., Christoffersen, M. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Selected findings from the baseline and targeted monitoring Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
Comparing Pre- and Post-Construction Distributions of Long-Tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis in and around the Nysted Offshore Wind Farm, Denmark: A Quasi-Designed Experiment Accounting for Imperfect Detection, Local Surface Features and Autocorrelation Petersen, I., Mackenzie, M., Rexstad, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Waterfowl, Birds
Is There a Conflict Between Cetacean Conservation and Marine Renewable-Energy Developments? Brown, V., Simmonds, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
MUSSEL CULTIVATION AS A CO-USE IN OFFSHORE WIND FARMS: POTENTIAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY Buck, B., Ebeling, M., Michler-Cieluch, T. Journal Article Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Use of High Resolution Sonar for Near-Turbine Fish Observations (DIDSON) - WeSea 2007-002 Couperus, B., Winter, E., van Keeken, O. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Avoidance Pelagic Fish, Fish
Public Engagement with Large-Scale Renewable Energy Technologies: Breaking the Cycle of NIMBYism Devine-Wright, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Stakeholder Engagement, Human Dimensions
The Nature Of Scour Development And Scour Protection At Offshore Windfarm Foundations Whitehouse, R., Harris, J., Sutherland, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Minimizing Collision Risk Between Migrating Raptors and Marine Wind Farms: Development of a Spatial Planning Tool Baisner, A., Andersen, J., Findsen, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm: Diver Surveys 2009-10 Percival, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Waterfowl
Environmental Risk Evaluation System (ERES) for Offshore Wind - Mock-Up of ERES, Fiscal Year 2010 Progress Report Anderson, R., Copping, A., Van Cleve, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Understanding the Environmental Impacts of Offshore Windfarms Collaborative Offshore Wind Research Into The Environment, Huddleston, J. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Gwynt y Môr Offshore Wind Farm Pre-construction Baseline Benthic Grab Survey Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Early Development of the Subtidal Marine Biofouling on a Concrete Offshore Windmill Foundation on the Thornton Bank (Southern North Sea): First Monitoring Results Kerckhof, F., Rumes, B., Jacques, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Marine spatial planning: Lessons learned from the Portuguese debate Calado, H., Ng, K., Johnson, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus Migration in Relation to Offshore Wind Farms Griffin, L., Rees, E., Hughes, B. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Waterfowl
Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm Extension Environmental Scoping Study Royal Haskoning Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Offshore Renewable Energy Development Plan (OREDP) For Ireland: Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA): Volume 1: Non - Technical Summary (NTS) Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Review of Literature and Studies on Electro Magnetic Fields (EMF) Generated by Undersea Power Cables and Associated Influence on Marine Organisms Switzer, T., Meggitt, D. Conference Paper Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF
Simulation Of Wave Damping Near Coast Due To Offshore Wind Farms Alari, V., Raudsepp, U. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow
Ocean Management & Planning in the United States: From Competition to Cooperation Heimes, R. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Simulating Environmental Changes Due to Marine Hydrokinetic Energy Installations James, S., Seetho, E., Jones, C. Conference Paper Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Residence Time and Behaviour of Sole and Cod in the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee Winter, H., Aarts, G., van Keeken, O. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Demersal Fish
Rampion Offshore Wind Farm - Scoping Report RSK Group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Cultural Ecosystem Services in the Context of Offshore Wind Farming: A Case Study from the West Coast of Schleswig-Holstein Gee, K., Burkhard, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Forecasting the consequences of climate-driven shifts in human behavior on cetaceans Alter, S., Simmonds, M., Brandon, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Fisheries
Disruption to Place Attachment and the Protection of Restorative Environments: A Wind Energy Case Study Devine-Wright, P., Howes, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Towards Best Environmental Practice for Cetacean Conservation in Developing Scotland's Marine Renewable Energy Dolman, S., Simmonds, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Large-Scale Offshore Wind Power in the United States: Assessment of Opportunities and Barriers Musial, M., Ram, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Ecosystem Processes
Approaches to Marine Mammal Monitoring at Marine Renewable Energy Developments Macleod, K., Du Fresne, S., Mackey, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Marine Mammals
Environmental Impact Assessment of Offshore Wind Farms: A Simulation-Based Approach Lapeña, B., Wijnberg, K., Hulscher, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
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