Partnering with WREN, questionnaires are sent to offshore wind energy developers around the world who are involved in environmental monitoring. This page provides contextual project information and highlights environmental monitoring, providing links to available data and reports. Content is updated annually.

Block Island Wind Farm

Description

The Block Island Wind Farm is the first commercial offshore wind farm in the United Sates and is located in state waters off the coast of Rhode Island. The offshore wind farm began commercial operation in December 2016 and is composed of 5 Haliade 150-6 MW GE turbines, for a total of 30 MW of installed compacity. The project uses pile driven jacket foundations made by Gulf Island Fabrication.

Location

Block Island Wind Farm is located 6.1 km (3.8 miles) from Block Island, Rhode Island (U.S.) in the Atlantic Ocean.

Project Timeline

  • December 2016: Farm completely operational
  • April-September 2016: Construction Phase 2
  • July-October 2015: Construction Phase 1
  • 2015-2016: Hard bottom survey
  • 2015-2019: Recreational vessel survey
  • 2013-2019: Ventless lobster survey
  • 2012-2019: Monthly demersal trawl surveys
  • 2012: Essential Fish Habitat survey
  • 2009-2011: Passive and active acoustic bats survey
  • 2009-2011: Land based and offshore bird studies
  • October-November 2008: Passive acoustic monitoring of marine mammals
  • 2006-2010: NEXRAD data collection

Licensing Information

In 2014, the project secured critical regulatory approvals from multiple state and federal agencies. The Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management (RIDEM) issued Water Quality Certificates, while the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) granted the Right-Of-Way (ROW) permit. Simultaneously, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACORE) provided a Department of the Army Construction Permit. Earlier, in 2012, the Town of New Shoreham's Zoning Board of Review had already granted a Special Use Permit for the Block Island Substation, demonstrating comprehensive local and federal support for the project's development.

Key Environmental Issues

The Block Island Wind Farm is the first facility to be studied under BOEM’s Realtime Opportunity for Development Environmental Observations (RODEO) program. RODEO aims to make direct, real-time measurements of the nature, intensity, and duration of potential stressors during the construction and initial operations of selected offshore wind facilities. Observations were made during the installation of the wind turbine foundations, the installation of the turbine towers, and during early operations. 

Environmental Papers and Reports

Environmental Monitoring: Block Island Wind Farm

Searches description, design and methods, and results.
Phase Stressor & Receptor Design and Methods Results Publications Data
Baseline Bats Passive Acoustic Monitoring
In spring 2009, summer and fall 2009, and spring of 2010, passive bat monitoring was used to assess bat occurrence on the
island and to identify the characteristics of the bat community present. 		Complete
Most bat activity was recorded during the fall from migratory tree roosting bats. Low overall bat diversity and activity levels were found in the Study Area. The results of active and passive monitoring were consistent. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Bats Active Acoustic Monitoring
In 2009 and 2011, active bat acoustic monitoring surveys were used onshore and offshore to collect data on species composition and activity levels on the island and in the offshore portion of the Study Area. 		Complete
Most bat activity was recorded during the fall from migratory tree roosting bats. Low overall bat diversity and activity levels were found in the Study Area. The results of active and passive monitoring were consistent. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Bats Vesper Radar
In fall 2009 and spring 2010, Tetra Tech deployed a DeTect VESPER vertical profiling radar on the western side of the island to sample a vertical column of air. 		Complete
Bats used the air space above the island very little in the fall and spring. Results align with the acoustic monitoring. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Bats NEXRAD
NEXRAD was used to look at pervious bat behaviour in the Block Island Study Area. Data were queried for 2006-2010, divided into seasons, and analysed to determine if the proposed project location hosted increased activity compared to other sites in the area. 		Complete
Data indicated that the site did not host the greatest levels of activity when compared to the other sample sites for all years, all months, and at all times of day, including during spring migration. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Birds Onshore Sea Watch Surveys
Tetra Tech conducted onshore point count surveys from July 2009 through June 2010. 		Complete
A variety of bird species were observed, mostly onshore birds. Shore birds, waterfowl, and wading bird species where also observed in large numbers. Relatively small numbers of gulls and tern species were recorded. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Birds Onshore Raptor Migration Survey
Tetra Tech conducted fall raptor migration surveys in 2009 using standardized visual count methods for raptors. The primary observation point was located on the south-eastern coast of the island at Southeast Lighthouse. 		Complete
Biologists observed far fewer total raptors compared to other regional sites, with few sighting of Merlin hawks, Cooper’s hawks, and bald eagles. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Birds Acoustic Monitoring
Tetra Tech deployed avian acoustic monitoring equipment within the Study Area during the 2009 late summer–early fall migration period, and again in spring 2010. The Lewis-Dicken’s Farm monitoring station was deployed on August 20 and operated until October 11, 2009. The third unit was deployed at the MERLIN radar near Southeast Lighthouse and operated from August 20 to October 31, 2009. Each of the three units was redeployed in spring 2010 on April 15, and they were removed on May 31. A fourth detector was deployed on the central portion of the southern coast but did not record reliably and was therefore excluded from analysis. 		Complete
Calls were recorded from 3 different species groups. More calls were recorded at Lewis-Dickens’ Farm than at Southeast Light or at New Harbour. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Birds Boat Based Survey
Offshore boat-based surveys were performed on 32 different days during a 366-day survey period from July 16, 2009, to June 24, 2010, and again from August 31, 2011, to September 21, 2011. 		Complete
Surveyed bird groups with the greatest number of species included seabirds, followed by waterfowl and gulls. Few species of loons, terns, and shore bird were observed. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Birds Offshore Aerial High-Definition Videography
During the 2009 and 2010 survey period, the 20 transect (70 segments) grid was sampled nine times. Flights were performed once per month starting in August 2009 and ending in April 2010. 		Complete
A total of 40.5 hours of survey video (4.25 hours per survey) were recorded, during which 3,482 individual birds were counted in the video. The videography survey provided limited information on species composition but provided useful data on bird abundance. The bird numbers were low in the fall and winter. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2012 No data publicly available.
Baseline Birds Merlin Radar
Between February 2009 and September 2011, Tetra Tech deployed and operated a DeTect MERLIN avian radar unit near the Southeast Lighthouse on Block Island. The radar unit collected data on avian targets utilizing the coastal waters off the southeast corner of the island within the project Study Area. 		Complete
The survey was able to provide continues monitoring and showed peak activity at dawn on late summer mornings, likely due to early morning foraging. 		Mizrahi et al. 2010 No data publicly available.
Baseline Birds Carcass Survey
Volunteers searched for and recorded carcasses at multiple beach locations for one year prior to project operation. 		Complete
Each survey found low numbers of carcasses. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2014 No data publicly available.
Baseline Fish Essential Fish Habitat Survey
In 2012, an Essential Fish Habitat (EFH) survey was conducted at the Study Area. 		Complete
Cable routes were established to avoid sensitive habitats. 		US Army Corps of Engineers 2013 No data publicly available.
Baseline Invertebrates Lobster Ventless Trap Survey
From March to October in 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018, lobsters were caught and released. 		Complete
Data, including sex, carapace length, egg status, disease prevalence, shell hardness, cull status, and V-notch, were used to understand presence. 		Griffin and Carey 2018 No data publicly available.
Baseline Marine Mammals Visual Monitoring
Visual monitoring of marine mammal activity was conducted continuously throughout pre-construction and construction to prevent noise-producing activities during times of high mammal activity. 		Complete
If marine mammals were observed within the 300-m safety exclusion zones during a 30-minute period and before the ramp-up began, surveying utilizing noise producing equipment was delayed until they moved out of the area. 		US Army Corps of Engineers 2013 No data publicly available.
Baseline Marine Mammals Acoustic Monitoring
Two passive acoustic listener systems were deployed between October 6 to November 11, 2008, within 4 km of Block Island. 		Complete
Results resulted in limiting pile driving from May to October to avoid migratory periods for critically endangered species such as the North Atlantic right whale. 		Miller et al. 2009, US Army Corps of Engineers 2013 No data publicly available.
Baseline Physical Environment Study of Benthic Community
In 2009, preliminary engineering and environmental analyses of the Study Area were conducted. 		Complete
Sensitive areas to be avoided were identified. 		Khan and Smith 2020, US Army Corps of Engineers 2013 No data publicly available.
Baseline Reptiles Visual Monitoring
Visual monitoring of sea turtles was conducted continuously throughout pre-construction and construction to prevent noise-producing activities during times of high mammal activity. 		Complete
If sea turtles were observed within the 300-m safety exclusion zones during a 30-minute period and before the ramp-up began, surveying utilizing noise producing equipment was delayed until they moved out of the area. 		US Army Corps of Engineers 2013 No data publicly available.
Baseline, Construction, Operations Habitat Change

Marine Mammals 		Spatiotemporal vessel density analysis
Vessel density was analyzed using monthly Automatic Identification System (AIS) data obtained for vessels operating in the region before, during, and after construction phases. Data were synthesized and cleaned by the Global Marine Traffic Density Service. Vessel density changes were analyzed on monthly rasters, with spatial data localized to 1 km² turbine-adjacent cells. Seasonal and vessel type impacts were specifically examined. Variance in vessel density across phases was quantified, and patterns were extrapolated. 		Complete
Vessel density sharply increased during construction (+33.87 monthly hours) and returned to near-average levels post-construction (-28.89 monthly hours). The overall increase was limited (+4.98 monthly hours pre-to-post construction). Changes were highly localized around turbine sites, and "all others" vessels experienced the largest density increase. Fishing vessels and cargo ships showed marginal changes. Seasonal peaks were observed during summer construction months. Long-term stresses to right whales were found to be minimal due to temporary and localized vessel presence. 		Bishop 2024 No data publicly available.
Construction Noise

Invertebrates 		Laboratory-based behavioral experiment with particle acceleration measurements
Reproductive behaviors of longfin squid were studied under controlled laboratory conditions using playback of pile driving noise recorded during BIWF construction. Squid were tested in groups (one large male, one small male, and one female) within a tank that replicated noise levels similar to a 500-meter radius from construction pile sites. Playback included repeated high-intensity impulsive noise, and the behaviors observed included mate guarding, mating, and egg-laying. A silent control was used for comparison. Behavioral changes were measured with detailed video monitoring of squid interactions, while the sound field within the tank was modeled and quantified (particle acceleration ranging from 105–145 dB re 1 μm/s² at various distances from the speaker). 		Complete
Pile driving noise had no significant effects on reproductive behaviors, including mate guarding, mating, and egg-laying, compared with silent control trials. Agonistic behaviors (e.g., chasing and lunging) showed no alteration between control and noise treatments. Results contrast with previous studies showing disrupted feeding and alarm responses (e.g., jetting and inking) in squid exposed to pile driving noise. Reproductive behaviors appear to be resilient to this stressor, supporting the evolutionary hypothesis that species with finite reproductive opportunities prioritize reproduction under environmental stress. 		Jones et al. 2023 No data publicly available.
Construction, Operations Habitat Change

Invertebrates 		Change in American Lobster Population Study
A ventless trap survey was conducted twice per month from May through October between 2013 and 2019. It was carried out at two sites near the Block Island Wind Farm (Near Field North and Near Field South) and two reference sites (Far Field North and Far Field South) located 22 km northeast. The survey design included trawl lines spaced 200–300 meters apart, each composed of two arrays of six traps—five ventless and one vented—spaced 30 meters apart. Soak times were standardized to five nights, and traps were baited with locally available skate. Data collection followed standardized procedures, recording lobster mortality, sex, carapace length, shell disease, egg status, and cull status, using protocols adapted from the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) ventless trap survey. 		Complete
The study found that lobster catch rates decreased between the baseline and operation periods, with a greater proportional decline near the wind farm (–30%) compared to the reference sites (–18%). However, no clear adverse impact from turbine installation on catch rates was observed. Ovigery rates for late-stage females increased more at reference sites than near the wind farm, while shell disease prevalence declined overall but remained higher near the wind farm. Cull rates (claw loss) slightly decreased in both areas, with a greater decline near the wind farm. Variability in lobster distributions and environmental factors like temperature influenced the findings, making it difficult to isolate wind farm effects from broader regional trends. 		Wilber et al. 2024 No data publicly available.
Operations Lighting

Bats 		Acoustic Vessel Monitoring
Between March-October 2016, two construction vessels with deck lights were deployed with a minimum of two bat acoustic detectors per boat. 		Complete
N/A 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2014 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise

Bats 		Vessel-based passive acoustic monitoring
Vessel-based acoustic bat monitoring was conducted during wind turbine generator (WTG) erection at the Block Island Wind Farm (BIWF) from August 2 to August 17, 2016. Two ultrasonic detectors (Wildlife Acoustics SM4BAT) were deployed on each of the two vessels, mounted to capture bat calls in adjacent open airspace. Detectors operated nightly from sunset to sunrise, and data were analyzed using Kaleidoscope Pro software, with visual confirmation by experienced biologists to refine species identification, correct false positives, and categorize unknown calls by frequency. Bat activity was summarized through metrics such as passes per detector-night, nightly timing of activity, and species composition. 		Complete
Over 54 detector-nights during WTG erection, 1,546 bat passes were recorded, with activity concentrated during nights with low wind speeds (<4.5 m/s) and warm temperatures (>18°C). Bat activity peaked on August 17, the final survey night, when most detections occurred at the Brave Tern vessel. Eastern red bats and silver-haired bats were the dominant species, and patterns suggest bats were attracted to vessel lighting and structures, potentially using the ships as temporary roosts. Bat activity was significantly higher than during pre-construction monitoring in nearby areas, where only 157 passes were recorded over 920 detector-nights. Observations indicate strong behavioral attraction to illuminated offshore vessels under favorable environmental conditions. 		Stantec Consulting 2016 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change, Noise

Bats, Birds, Seabirds 		Acoustic monitoring
Wildlife Acoustics SM4BAT detectors and SM4 dual-channel acoustic recorders were mounted at ~25 meters above sea level on Turbines 1 and 3 to monitor bat and bird activity. Bat detectors operated nightly from sunset to sunrise for 1,707 detector-nights, while bird recorders ran continuously year-round, targeting seasonal activity. Acoustic files were analyzed using Kaleidoscope Pro software, manually reviewed to correct static interference and identify species. Data metrics included detection rates, activity patterns, species composition, and environmental triggers like wind speed, while bird call recordings underwent filtering to account for ambient noise interference from turbine operations and wave action. 		Complete
Bat activity was concentrated in late summer and early fall (August–September), occurring on 11.2% of detector-nights. Eastern red bats (41.4%) and silver-haired bats (35.1%) dominated detections, primarily occurring during low wind speeds (<7 m/s). No activity was recorded from December to April. Bird monitoring was limited by ambient noise interference, yielding only nine calls between 2017–2018 and two fragmented calls in 2019, primarily from great black-backed gulls, herring gulls, and unidentified species. Risks to bats were seasonal and sporadic, while bird activity trends remained inconclusive due to data constraints. 		Stantec Consulting 2020 No data publicly available.
Operations Collision

Birds 		Carcass Survey
Carcass surveys were performed during year 1 and year 3 of operation, during which volunteers recorded carcasses at multiple beach locations. 		Complete
Each survey found low numbers of carcasses. There was no way to determine each bird’s cause of death. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2014 No data publicly available.
Operations Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change

Birds, Raptors, Seabirds 		Radar-based and video-assisted monitoring
Bird activity near turbines was monitored using DHI’s MUSE System, combining radar and cameras to track flights within a 1,500-meter radius. The radar triggered video recordings for tracks approaching within 100 meters of Turbines 1 and 3, filtering out static and dynamic noise. The study focused on high-frequency radar sampling and captured videos during daytime and nighttime flights. 		Complete
Birds exhibited clear avoidance behavior, with flight activity concentrated around turbines but unlikely to approach closer than 60 meters to rotor zones. Seasonal and migratory patterns aligned with phenological peaks, particularly in summer and winter. No collision events were recorded, though radar shading near turbines limited visibility in closer zones. Circular flight patterns dominated daytime activity, while linear paths were prominent at night, suggesting spatial and behavioral adaptation to turbine proximity. 		Skov and Karlsson 2024 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change

Birds, Seabirds 		Beached Bird Surveys (BBS)
Beached bird surveys were conducted biweekly throughout the year following the SEANET Protocol (Version 3.1, 2010) as part of Deepwater Wind Block Island's Avian and Bat Monitoring Plan. GPS equipment was used to document precise locations of bird carcasses, and all surveys included data sheets detailing environmental conditions, program data, and carcass information. Photographic evidence of findings was archived, and unidentified carcasses were classified to the lowest taxonomic level possible. Surveys were performed at three predefined beaches: Scotch Beach (BI-1), Snake Hole/Vail Beach (BI-3), and South of Ballard’s Beach (BI-2). 		Complete
Across four years of beached bird surveys (2015–2019), a cumulative total of 40 birds representing various species were observed, with 19 recorded in 2019 alone. The Great Black-backed Gull was the most frequently encountered species overall, accounting for 16 sightings, including 11 in 2019. Other species documented include Common Eider, Razorbill, Red-necked Grebe, Horned Grebe, and a possible Northern Harrier. Observations were primarily concentrated at Scotch Beach (BI-1), which recorded 27 encounters, followed by Snake Hole/Vail Beach (BI-3) with 13 birds, while South of Ballard’s Beach (BI-2) had no findings. No state or federally protected species were identified, and patterns of bird mortality showed no discernible trends, though peaks occurred in June 2015 and January 2019. 		Tetra Tech Inc. 2020 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change

Birds, Seabirds 		Ship-based avian surveys
Monthly surveys followed predefined sawtooth transects with segments inside and outside turbine areas, recording bird abundance, encounter rates, behavior, and flight heights within a 300-meter zone. Observations were conducted under favorable sea conditions using GPS-enabled tablets and laser range finders to minimize double-counts. Data were analyzed using R software to compare pre- and post-construction metrics. 		Complete
Post-construction surveys recorded lower bird richness and abundance compared to pre-construction (6,957 birds, 32 species vs. 5,590 birds, 28 species post-construction). Sea ducks dominated pre-construction surveys, while gulls were most abundant post-construction. Bird density decreased from 34.22 birds/km² to 31.3 birds/km², while encounter rates within turbine areas were significantly reduced. Approximately 5% of observed flights occurred within rotor-swept height zones, with no notable differences in flight height between turbine and non-turbine areas. 		Stantec Consulting 2020 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change

Fish 		Trawl Study
Between October 2012 and September 2019, monthly data from randomized trawl lines were collected in three areas. 		Complete
Results showed no difference between operation and pre-construction. 		Carey et al. 2020 No data publicly available.
Operations Noise

Fish 		Underwater Sound Monitoring
Underwater acoustic and seismic signals were measured and recorded during winter (20 December 2016 to 7 January 2017) late summer (2 October to 3 November 2017) conditions. In addition, extended underwater acoustic monitoring also was conducted over 100 days during summer 2017 (15 July to 24 October 2017). Stationary hydrophone located 50 m-100 m from wind turbines. 		Complete
The overall conclusion from the operational phase underwater acoustic monitoring is that given the 1) low levels of sound recorded by the various sensors under differing environmental and weather conditions and 2) very low probability of these low levels causing potential harm to fish, operational phase underwater acoustic monitoring may not provide much additional value for future facilities. As part of a risk mitigation plan, this monitoring phase could be bypassed. 		Elliot et al. 2019 No data publicly available.
Operations Noise

Fish, Invertebrates 		Acoustic pressure gradients
Acoustic pressure gradients were determined using underwater acoustic monitoring data separately collected during 1) the BIWF Phase 1 construction and 2) turbine operations. These data were used to compute acoustic particle acceleration. 		Complete
The results were compared to findings and observations from review of available and relevant acoustic particle velocity literature. Findings from the construction phase data analyses were also compared to results from operational phase data analyses. 		HDR 2019 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change

Invertebrates 		Lobster Ventless Trap Survey
Between May and October, from 2013 to 2019, bimonthly data were collected in two areas. 		Complete
Catch rate was lower during operation but ovigery rates increased. 		Carey et al. 2020, Griffin and Carey 2018 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change

Marine Mammals 		Seafloor Video Captures
47 towed video transects were dropped at 130 locations between summer of 2015 and 2016. 		Complete
Data indicated that disturbed sea floor was recovering. 		Carey et al. 2020 No data publicly available.
Operations Noise

Marine Mammals 		Underwater Sound Monitoring
Underwater acoustic and seismic signals were measured and recorded during winter (20 December 2016 to 7 January 2017) late summer (2 October to 3 November 2017) conditions. In addition, extended underwater acoustic monitoring also was conducted over 100 days during summer 2017 (15 July to 24 October 2017). Stationary hydrophone located 50 m-100 m from wind turbines. 		Complete
The overall conclusion from the operational phase underwater acoustic monitoring is that given the 1) low levels of sound recorded by the various sensors under differing environmental and weather conditions and 2) very low probability of these low levels causing potential harm to marine mammals, operational phase underwater acoustic monitoring may not provide much additional value for future facilities. As part of a risk mitigation plan, this monitoring phase could be bypassed. 		Elliot et al. 2019 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change

Physical Environment 		Benthic and Epifaunal Monitoring
A stratified random sampling design was used in previous BIWF surveys, focusing on turbines T1, T3, and T5 due to their diverse biotope classifications. Five strata were established around each turbine: foundation footprint, very near field (<30 m), near field (30–49 m), intermediate field (50–69 m), and far field (70–90 m). Additionally, three non-stratified control areas were selected outside the wind farm at varying distances and repositioned each survey. Three stations were sampled within most turbine strata, with triplicate samples attempted at each. The number of benthic samples per survey ranged from 108 to 150, with 27 to 41 collected per turbine. 		Complete
The Year 2 benthic study at Block Island Wind Farm assessed turbine impacts on seabed communities. Sampling included grab samples, video, and sediment analysis. No significant changes were found beyond natural variation at 30–90m from turbines, but Turbine 1 showed localized changes with mussel coverage, finer sediments, and possible anoxia. Ongoing monitoring is advised. 		Bartley et al. 2019 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change

Physical Environment 		Benthic and Epifaunal Monitoring
The Year 4 Monitoring Study at the Block Island Wind Farm assessed the impact of offshore wind turbines on benthic and epifaunal communities. Using vessel- and diver-based sampling, seabed imagery, and epifaunal scrape analysis, researchers observed localized changes in sediment composition and organic content due to turbine presence. 		Complete
The study found increased epifaunal biomass, particularly mussels, on turbine structures, contributing to habitat changes and biodiversity shifts. While benthic infauna showed variability in diversity and abundance, the overall impact remained spatially limited. Continued monitoring is recommended to track long-term ecological effects. 		Erickson et al. 2023 No data publicly available.
Operations Habitat Change

Physical Environment 		Change in Benthic and Epifaunal Communities Study
This study brings together the results of 4.9 years of Benthic and Epifaunal surveys surrounding the five turbines. The study utilized a stratified random sampling design, with benthic and epifaunal monitoring conducted at three Block Island Wind Farm turbines and control sites. Sampling involved vessel- and diver-based grab sampling, seabed video imaging, and epifaunal scrape sampling at designated stations to assess changes in sediment composition and benthic communities. 		Complete
The study on the Block Island Wind Farm found that significant changes in seabed sediments and faunal composition were limited to the immediate footprint of the turbine foundations, with no widespread impact on benthic conditions beyond the turbines. Epifaunal communities on the turbine structures were highly dynamic, showing no trend toward a stable, climax community. Over time, fine sediments increased near the turbines, while total sand content declined slightly. The number of unique infauna taxa grew during the study, but no clear pattern of change in diversity or abundance was linked to distance from the turbines. The turbine structures were dominated by Mytilus edulis (blue mussels), though their coverage fluctuated between years. Overall, while the turbines caused localized habitat shifts, their broader ecological effects were minimal. Future monitoring should use fixed-station, repeated-measures approaches to track these dynamic habitat changes more effectively. 		Fonseca et al. 2024 No data publicly available.
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