Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3733

Searches title and abstract.
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
The Long distance wake behind Horns Rev I studied using large eddy simulations and a wind turbine parameterization in WRF Eriksson, O., Baltscheffsky, M., Breton, S-P. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Seabirds as samplers of the marine environment - a case study of northern gannets Garthe, S., Peschko, V., Kubetzki, U. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Seabirds, Birds
Review and analysis of tracking data to delineate flight characteristics and migration routes of birds over the Southern North Sea Gyimesi, A., Evans, T., Linnebjerg, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Passerines, Seabirds, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Red Kite Mammen, K., Mammen, U., Resetaritz, A. Book Chapter Fixed Offshore Wind, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Attraction Raptors, Birds
Assessing larval connectivity for marine spatial planning in the Adriatic Bray, L., Kassis, D., Hall-Spencer, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Recreational Use of Offshore Wind Farms: Experiences and Opinions of Sea Anglers in the UK Hooper, T., Hattam, C., Austen, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Towards a Framework for Quantifying the Population-Level Consequences of Anthropogenic Pressures on the Environment: The Case of Seabirds and Windfarms Cook, A., Robinson, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Seabirds, Birds
Monitoring of wintering geese in the AES Geo Energy Wind Farm "St. Nikola" territory and the Kaliakra region in winter 2016/2017 Zehtindjiev, P., Whitfield, D. Report Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Waterfowl
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Summary of Winter 2017 Digital Survey #3 Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Seismic survey noise disrupted fish use of a temperate reef Paxton, A., Taylor, C., Nowacek, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
The Implications of Energy Systems for Ecosystem Services: A Detailed Case Study of Offshore Wind Hooper, T., Beaumont, N., Hattam, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
A Well-Being Framework for Impact Evaluation: The Case of the UK Offshore Wind Industry Hattam, C., Hooper, T., Papathanasopoulou, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Fall 2016 Taxonomic Analysis Summary Report Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Bat Flight Analysis around Wind Turbines - A Feasibility Study Lagerveld, S., Kooistra, G., Otten, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Measurements of hydro sound emissions during internal jet cutting during monopile decommissioning Hinzmann, N., Stein, P., Gattermann, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Marine Protected Areas and Offshore Wind Farms Sanders, N., Haynes, T., Goriup, P. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Avoidance Marine Mammals
Development of a Video Trawl Survey System for New England Groundfish DeCelles, G., Keiley, E., Lowery, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Visual Impacts
Community benefits from offshore renewables: The relationship between different understandings of impact, community, and benefit Rudolph, D., Haggett, C., Aitken, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Stakeholder Engagement, Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2016 Dumon, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Bat 1: Estimate of bat populations at the southern North Sea - Supporting note to ZDV report no. 2016.031 Migrating bats at the southern North Sea Lagerveld, S., Limpens, H., Schillemans, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Review of Methods and Techniques for Field Validation of Collision Rates and Avoidance Amongst Birds and Bats at Offshore Wind Turbines Dirksen, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Bats, Birds
Appendix E-1 LimnoTech Report - Results of 2016 Aquatic Sampling LimnoTech Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Invertebrates
Interim Report of the Working Group on Marine Benthal and Renewable Energy Developments (WGMBRED) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions
Sustainable Decommissioning of an Offshore Wind Farm Topham, E., McMillan, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Improving Efficiencies of National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Facilities - Case Studies Report English, P., Mason, T., Backstrom, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions
An Assessment of the Economic Potential of Offshore Wind in the United States from 2015 to 2030 Beiter, P., Musial, W., Kilcher, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Life cycle assessment and net energy analysis of offshore wind power systems Huang, Y., Gan, X., Chiueh, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Current and Wave Effects around Windfarm Monopile Foundations Miles, J., Martin, T., Goddard, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Observing Cable Laying and Particle Settlement During the Construction of the Block Island Wind Farm James, E., Smith, K., Gallien, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Norfolk Boreas Offshore Wind Farm Environmental Impact Assessment Scoping Report Royal Haskoning Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Migrating bats at the southern North Sea: Approach to an estimation of migration populations of bats at the southern North Sea Limpens, H., Lagerveld, S., Ahlén, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Maritime Route Delineation using AIS Data from the Atlantic Coast of the US Breithaupt, S., Copping, A., Tagestad, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Navigation, Human Dimensions
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Fall 2016 Target Extraction Summary Report Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Offshore Wind Energy: Good Practice in Impact Assessment, Mitigation and Compensation Lüdeke, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Telemetry for migratory bats - a feasibility study Lagerveld, S., Janssen, R., Manshanden, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
A Framework for Assessing Ecological and Cumulative Effects (FAECE) of Offshore Wind Farms on Birds, Bats and Marine Mammals in the Southern North Sea Platteeuw, M., Bakker, J., van den Bosch, I. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Birds, Bats
Unforeseen Responses of a Breeding Seabird to the Construction of an Offshore Wind Farm Harwood, A., Perrow, M., Berridge, R. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Avoidance Seabirds, Birds
Is There a State-of-the-Art to Reduce Pile-Driving Noise? Bellmann, M., Schuckenbrock, J., Gündert, S. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
How does the cumulative impacts approach support Maritime Spatial Planning? Fernandes, M., Esteves, T., Oliveira, E. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Summary of Summer 2017 Digital Survey #5 Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
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