Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents Related to Fixed Offshore Wind

Total results: 3196
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Evaluation of Lighting Schemes for Offshore Wind Facilities and Impacts to Local Environments Orr, T., Herz, S., Oakley, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Lighting
The Relative Vulnerability of Migratory Bird Species to Offshore Wind Energy Projects on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf: An Assessment Method and Database Willmott, J., Forcey, G., Kent, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Birds
Offshore Wind Energy Development Site Assessment and Characterization: Evaluation of the Current Status and European Experience Rein, C., Lundin, A., Wilson, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Birds and Offshore Wind: Studying and Assessing Effects Pereksta, D. Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
On the Prediction of Pile Driving Induced Underwater Sound Pressure Levels Over Long Ranges Lippert, T., Heitmann, K., Ruhnau, M. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Physical Environment
Windpark SeaStar Milieueffectenrapport International Marine and Dredging Consultants Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact of Wind Energy Mann, J., Teilmann, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Impacts of OWF installations on fisheries: A Literature Review Bat, L., Sezgin, M., Sahin, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy
New York Department of State Offshore Atlantic Ocean Study New York Department of State Report Fixed Offshore Wind Reptiles, Marine Mammals, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fish, Birds
Current state of knowledge of effects of offshore renewable energy generation devices on marine mammals & research requirements Thompson, D., Hall, A., Lonergan, M. Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Hornsea Offshore Wind Farm Project One: Environmental Statement: Volume 5 - Offshore Annexes Chapter 5.5.1: Ornithology Technical Report RPS group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Hornsea Offshore Wind Farm Project One: Reports - Habitat Regulations Assessment Report: Information to Support the Appropriate Assessment for Project One RPS group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Design and Implementation of a Marine Animal Alert System to Support Marine Renewable Energy Deng, Z., Carlson, T., Fu, T. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Mid-Atlantic Marine Wildlife Surveys, Modeling, and Data: Workshop to Establish Coordination & Communication Brown-Saracino, J., Smith, C., Gilman, P. Workshop Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals, Reptiles
Mobile Demersal Megafauna at Artificial Structures in the German Bight - Likely Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Development Krone, R., Gutow, L., Brey, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
Effects of an Offshore Wind Farm on Temporal and Spatial Patterns in the Demersal Fish Community Bergström, L., Sundqvist, F., Bergström, U. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Evaluating the Effectiveness of an Ultrasonic Acoustic Deterrent for Reducing Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines Arnett, E., Hein, C., Schirmacher, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision Bats
Marine Renewable Energies: Perspectives and Implications for Marine Ecosystems Azzellino, A., Conley, D., Vicinanza, D. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes
Predicting Underwater Radiated Noise Levels due to the First Offshore Wind Turbine Installation in the U.S. Kim, H., Miller, J., Potty, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Model for Underwater Noise Radiated by Submerged Wind Turbine Towers Hay, T., Ilinskii, Y., Zabolotskaya, E. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
A Semi Analytical Model for the Prediction of Underwater Noise from Offshore Pile Driving Tsouvalas, A., Metrikine, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Modelling the Spatial Concentrations of Bird Migration to Assess Conflicts with Wind Turbines Liechti, F., Guélat, J., Komenda-Zehnder, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
2010-2013, RHDHV, Thanet, Ornithological Monitoring Royal Haskoning DHV, Royal Haskoning, Ecology Consulting Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Marine Renewables, Biodiversity and Fisheries Attrill, M., Godley, B., Thompson, R. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Diversity of Demersal and Megafaunal Assemblages Inhabiting Sandbanks of the Irish Sea Atalah, J., Fitch, J., Coughlan, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish, Demersal Fish
Cumulative Impacts Assessment Guidelines: Guiding Principles for Cumulative Impacts Assessment in Offshore Wind Farms RenewableUK Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Evaluating Acoustic Technologies to Monitor Aquatic Organisms at Renewable Energy Sites: Final Report Horne, J., Jacques, D., Parker-Stetter, S. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Information Synthesis on the Potential for Bat Interactions with Offshore Wind Facilities - Final Report Pelletier, S., Omland, K., Watrous, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Potential Scour for Marine Current Turbines Based on Experience of Offshore Wind Turbine Chen, L., Lam, W., Shamsuddin, A. Conference Paper Marine Energy, Tidal, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Trade-offs between seascape and offshore wind farming values: An analysis of local opinions based on a cognitive belief framework Gee, K. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Visual Impacts, Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Commercial Wind Lease Issuance and Site Assessment Activities on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Offshore Rhode Island and Massachusetts Revised Environmental Assessment Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Annual environmental report 2012 - Belwind phase 1 Belwind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment, Navigation
Modeling Wildlife Densities and Habitat Use Across Temporal and Spatial Scales on the Mid-Atlantic Continental Shelf: Annual Report for the First Budget Period Williams, K. Report Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Reptiles, Marine Mammals, Birds
An Analysis of Offshore Wind Development: A Non-market, Stated Preference Approach to Measure Community Perceptions and Opinions and Estimate Willingness to Pay in Two Lake Michigan Regions Knapp, L., Li, Y., Ma, Y. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Assessing Vulnerability of Marine Bird Populations to Offshore Wind Farms Furness, R., Wade, H., Masden, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds
How the Belgian Wind Farm Business Made us Discover the Challenging Environment of Marine Sand Dunes Bolle, A., Mathys, M., Haerens, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
London Array Siemens Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Effects of Pile-Driving on Harbour Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) at the First Offshore Wind Farm in Germany Dähne, M., Gilles, A., Lucke, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Epifauna Dynamics at an Offshore Foundation - Implications of Future Wind Power Farming in the North Sea Krone, R., Gutow, L., Joschko, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Visual Observations for Birds, Turtles, and Marine Mammals at the University of Maine Test Site near Monhegan, Maine. Kennedy, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Raptors, Seabirds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds, Human Dimensions
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