Skip to main content

Fixed Offshore Wind

Fixed Offshore Wind Energy Foundation Types
Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3973

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Threat Assessment for the Critically Endangered North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis) Vanderlaan, A., Lang, S., Sanchez, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Baseline surveys of Birds, Bats and Marine Mammals in areas for Offshore Wind Farms in the Danish North Sea (North Sea I): Bats – Baseline surveys 2023-2025 North Sea I Brinkløv, S., Smeele, S., Uebel, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Robust real-time detection of right whale upcalls using neural networks on the edge Hyer, M., Anderson, A., Mann, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Do wind farms affect turbidity? What are the effects on benthos? Henry, S., Brenon, I., Derrien-Courtel, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Best Practice Guidance for Fisheries Liaison with Offshore Renewables Developments Fishing Liaison with Offshore Wind and Wet Renewables Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Modelling of kittiwake metapopulation dynamics (MetaKitti) Technical Report Matthiopoulos, J., Jeglinski, J., Miller, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Offshore wind farms and marine protected areas in European waters: Better apart than together Lloret, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
The collision risk of migrating birds at wind farms: Final report VolZug project Liedtke, J., Bruneaux, M., Girndt, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Lighting Birds
Advancing multi-use in offshore wind energy planning: Perceived opportunities and barriers in southern New England, U.S. Smith, S., McCann, J., Bingham, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Foraging areas of coastal and offshore seabirds in the Dutch North Sea - An analysis of survey and tracking data Madden, H., van Bemmelen, R., van der Have, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Nature+ Conference 2025: Summary and Future Outlook Dutch Marine Energy Centre Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
The seafloor footprint of offshore wind infrastructure in the United States Ocean Runde, B., Paxton, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
A prospective life cycle assessment of drivetrain technologies in offshore wind Dighe, V., Bansal, A., Jansen, K. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Passive acoustic monitoring of baleen whales using autonomous gliders in relation to offshore wind energy areas in the New York Bight Gallagher, K., Baumgartner, M., Kohut, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Marine Mammal surveys – pre-investigations for offshore wind farms in the area North Sea I Sveegaard, S., Nabe-Nielsen, J., Cordier, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Living Windfarms Project: North Sea Artificial Reef Pilot Greenhill, S., Melhuish, W., Coulet, W. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Offshore surveys of Birds, Bats and Marine Mammals for Offshore Wind Farms in Danish Waters, North Sea I for Year 2 Petersen, I., Thomsen, H., Scott-Hayward, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Marine Mammals
Scour variability across offshore wind farms (OWFs): identifying site-specific scour drivers as a step towards assessing potential impacts on the marine environment Garcia, K., Jordan, C., Melling, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Baseline surveys of Birds, Bats and Marine Mammals in areas for Offshore Wind Farms in the Danish North Sea (North Sea I) Brinkløv, S., Smeele, S., Uebel, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Marine Mammals
A Multi-Sensor Approach for Measuring Bird and Bat Collisions with Offshore Wind Turbines (Final Technical Report) Western Ecosystems Technology Inc (WEST), TNO (Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research) Wind Energy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Bats, Birds
Right Wind: Resolving Protected Species Space-Use Conflicts in Wind Energy Areas Ganley, L., Rice, A., Ryder, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Evaluating aerial LiDAR and other approaches to avian flight height measurement– ReSCUE Project Validation Study Report Rhoades, J., Feather, A., Harwood, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Offshore Wind Farm Contributions to a Regional Environmental and Ecological Monitoring System to Address Multi-User Needs Kohut, J., Crowley, M., Coleman, K. Guidance Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Recreation & Tourism, Stakeholder Engagement
Advances in the Development of Monitoring Systems Allying Acoustic Real-Time Data and Model Validation for Effective Management of Underwater Noise Pollution Maglio, A., Fossa, F. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Noise
Offshore wind turbines constitute benthic secondary production hotspots on and around constructions Dannheim, J., Beermann, J., Coolen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Farm Cumulative Effects Assessments – Case Study 1: Including projects without an EIA Sinclair, R., Klementisova, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Oceanographic HF Radar Data Preservation in Wind Turbine Trockel, J., Trockel, D., Whelan, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Navigation
Laying out the foundations: Assessing the spatial extent and drivers of offshore wind turbine artificial reef effects on soft sediments Lefaible, N., van Colen, C., Jammar, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Nova Scotia says offshore wind could provide 27% of Canada's electricity Dodge, D., Obermann, E. Podcast Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Foresight review of nature-positive engineering: Building with nature in coastal and marine environments Lloyd's Register Group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Life Cycle Assessment, Marine Spatial Planning
Opportunities and challenges for new technologies in seabird population monitoring Frederiksen, M., Layton-Matthews, K., Bennett, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
One Molecule to Find Them: Using eDNA to Quantify and Assess Marine Biodiversity at Offshore Wind Farms Berger, H. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Guiding Elements for Strengthening Cumulative Impact Assessment Regulations for Offshore Wind Energy Dibo, A., Siqueira-Gay, J., Duarte, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Proposed Underwater Noise Limits for Offshore Wind Construction in the U.S. Reeve, M., Martin, M., H.W. Wilson Company Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Establishing a Passive Acoustic Monitoring Network Along the U.S. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Martin, M., Staaterman, E., Reeve, M. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Project WOW Acoustic Sampling Strategies, Platforms, and Initial Results Nowacek, D., Rice, A., Southall, B. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Bats, Birds, Marine Mammals
Uncrewed Aerial Systems Aid to Advance Field Studies of Construction Sound Exposure of Fin Whales in Southern New England Waters Parks, S., Adcock, D., Burgess, A. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Tipping the decision of offshore wind farm decommissioning – The causal effects of biodiversity illustrations and information on the social acceptance Stranddorf, L., Ladenburg, J., Zuch, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Offshore wind farms act as de facto marine reserves Fitkov-Norris, B., Witt, M., Simmons, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Life Cycle Assessment of co-located floating offshore wind and wave energy technologies in Portugal Bastos, P., Breyer, C., Kluge, S. Conference Paper Marine Energy, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment

Displaying 201 - 240 of 3973 results