Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3132
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Noise pollution causes parental stress on marine invertebrates, the Giant scallop example Gigot, M, Tremblay, R., Bonnel, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Noise Invertebrates
France Energies Marines Annual Report 2023 France Energies Marines Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Guardians of the seabed: Nature-inclusive design of scour protection in offshore wind farms enhances benthic diversity Kingma, E., ter Hofstede, R., Kardinaal, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind South Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) for Commercial Wind Lease OCS-A 0499 Sullivan, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
Evaluating drivers of recent large whale strandings on the East Coast of the United States Thorne, L., Wiley, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Input from workshop on bat fatalities from offshore wind Royal Haskoning Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Bats
Experience report on operational noise: Cross-project evaluation and assessment of underwater noise measurements from the operational phase of offshore wind farms Bellmann, M., Müller, T., Scheiblich, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Fisheries independent surveys in a new era of offshore wind energy development Lipsky, A., Silva, A., Gilmour, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Environmental impacts from large-scale offshore renewable-energy deployment Ouro, P., Fernandez, R., Armstrong, A. Journal Article Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
An analytical strategy for challenging members of the microplastic family: Particles from anti-corrosion coatings Hildebrandt, L., Fischer, M., Klein, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals Physical Environment, Water Quality
Answering the key stakeholder questions about the impact of offshore wind farms on marine life using hypothesis testing to inform targeted monitoring Cresci, A., Degraer, S., Zhang, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Assessing the influence of offshore wind turbine noise on seasonal fish chorusing Siddagangaiah, S., Chen, C-F., Hu, W-C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
A framework for studying the effects of offshore wind energy development on birds and bats in the Eastern United States Williams, K., Gulka, J., Cook, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Bats, Birds
Coastal Virginia Offshore Wind: Double Big Bubble Curtain Plan Dominion Energy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Final Environmental Assessment for Additional Site Assessment Activities on Beacon Wind, LLC’s Renewable Energy Lease OCS-A 0527 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Using a Mechanical Whale to Test Automatic Whale Blow Detection with Applications to Offshore Wind Development Eaton, R., Prisco, J., Everson, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Coastal and offshore movements of Nathusius' pipistrelle during autumn migration Lagerveld, S., de Vries, P., Noort, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Bats
SEABIRD: System for Environmental Assessment of Bird/Bat Interactions with Real-time Detection Chang, G., Chevitarese, M., Kramer, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision Bats, Birds
Decommissioning Case Study: Circular Economy in the Wind Sector – Materials Mapping Smithson-Paul, V., Bennet, L., Fraser, O. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Will wind development adversely impact North Atlantic right whales through an increase in vessel traffic? Bishop, A. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
A new method for quantifying redistribution of seabirds within operational offshore wind farms finds no evidence of within-wind farm displacement Trinder, M., O'Brien, S., Deimel, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Displacement Seabirds
A review on the interactions between engineering and marine life: key information for engineering professionals Dobson, T., Lenchine, V., Bainbridge, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Environmental Impact Assessment
Do electromagnetic fields from subsea power cables effect benthic elasmobranch behaviour? A risk-based approach for the Dutch Continental Shelf Hermans, A., Winter, H., Gill, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish
Offshore Wind Facts: Coastal and Marine Habitats Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Offshore Wind Facts: Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Primary vs grey: A critical evaluation of literature sources used to assess the impacts of offshore wind farms Szostek, C., Edwards-Jones, A., Beaumont, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, Habitat Change, Vessel Strike Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Offshore Wind Facts: Property Values and Visual Impacts Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Recreation & Tourism, Visual Impacts
Offshore Wind Facts Deeper Dive: Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) and Offshore Wind Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Offshore Wind Facts: Fish and Invertebrates Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Fish, Invertebrates
Offshore Wind Facts: Jobs and Workforce Development Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Offshore Wind Facts: Birds and Bats Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Lighting, Noise Bats, Birds
Offshore Wind Facts Deeper Dive: Ocean Hydrodynamics, Offshore Wind Farms, and the Mid Atlantic Bight Cold Pool Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Water Quality
Drivers of flight altitude during nocturnal bird migration over the North Sea and implications for offshore wind energy Bradaric, M., Kranstauber, B., Bouten, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2023 Magnus, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Birds, Seabirds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Larger wind turbines as a solution to reduce environmental impacts Akhtar, N., Geyer, B., Schrum, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Mapping seabird vulnerability to offshore wind farms in Norwegian waters Fauchald, P., Ollus, V., Ballesteros, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
A numerical study on the effect of asymmetry on underwater noise emission in offshore monopile installation Molenkamp, T., Tsouvalas, A., Metrikine, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Observational and Modeling Approaches for Assessing Impacts of Offshore Wind Development on California Current Upwelling: Workshop Summary Kojima, A., Kilpatrick, T., Jacox, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Ecosystem Processes
Conditions for sustainable decommissioning of offshore wind turbines Kelder, M., van Pelt, A., van Megen, O. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
Conditions for nature friendly and circular decommissioning Natuur & Milieu Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Displaying 161 - 200 of 3132 results