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Fixed Offshore Wind

Fixed Offshore Wind Energy Foundation Types
Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3852

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Recommendations for the chemical risk assessment of cathodic protection systems in the marine environment Dussauze, M., Caplat, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals Physical Environment, Water Quality
Summary report of stakeholder engagement (WP3): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments Hague, A., Miller, S.C., Jones, E.L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
Environmental licensing of wind farms in the Global North and South: A review of guidelines and new proposals Santos, V., Cavalcante, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
A Porpoise-Driven Approach: Using Agent-Based Models to Predict Population Consequences of Offshore Wind Noises on Gulf of Maine Harbor Porpoises Pridonoff, B. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Impacts on birds from offshore wind farms in Australia: An ecological risk assessment Reid, K., Baker, G.B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds
On the Concept of—and Legal Pathways Towards—Marine Co-existence: Sustainable Offshore Wind Energy in the Baltic and North Seas Neimane, L., Schütz, S., Gipperth, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
Review of methods used to calculate scale of artificial nesting structures proposed as a compensation measure for Kittiwake mortality at offshore wind farms Rhoades, J., Johnston, D.T., Humphreys, E.M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
ProcBe Annual Report No.2: Year 2 The Crown Estate Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Characteristics of Ambient Seismic Noise Recorded at Offshore Wind Turbine Platform Monitoring Stations Wang, J., Zheng, J., Sun, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Sediment grain size and bedform morphology and dynamics shape benthic community heterogeneity in submarine dune fields Chauvel, N., Dufresne, T., Le Bot, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
North Atlantic right whale localization and source level estimation using two coherently beamformed linear arrays Abbot, T., Granite, E., Premus, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
An Oceanography-Based Anticipatory Approach to Monitoring Fisheries and Fishery Resource Impacts From Offshore Wind Farms: A Perspective From the Mid-Atlantic Bight, USA Grothues, T., Adolf, J., Borsetti, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries
Strengthening Offshore Wind Community Engagement: Recommendations for State Agencies Clean Energy States Alliance, Equinval Partners Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Finding common ground: Assessing the Co-location potential of California's blue food and clean energy sectors Gonzales, C., Wu, G., Froehlich, H. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
A novel approach to evaluate the effects of offshore energy infrastructure on the northern Gulf of America shrimp fleet Turley, B., Dettloff, K., Klajbor, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Propagating uncertainty from physical and biogeochemical drivers through to top predators in dynamic Bayesian ecosystem models improves predictions Trifonova, N., Wihsgott, J., Scott, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Evidence Review Note: Environmental Impact Assessment Offshore Wind Evidence Knowledge Hub Guidance Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
North Atlantic right whale detection range performance quantification on a bottom-mounted linear hydrophone array using a calibrated acoustic source Premus, V., Abbot, P., Illich, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Impacts of offshore wind farms on migratory bats in British waters Hooker, J., Lintott, P., Boughey, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Lighting Bats
Do wind farms affect turbidity? What are the effects on benthos? Henry, S., Brenon, I., Derrien-Courtel, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Best Practice Guidance for Fisheries Liaison with Offshore Renewables Developments Fishing Liaison with Offshore Wind and Wet Renewables Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Modelling of kittiwake metapopulation dynamics (MetaKitti) Technical Report Matthiopoulos, J., Jeglinski, J., Miller, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Case-dependent impacts of offshore wind farms on ecosystems: A systematic review and meta-analysis Thomassen, J., Brown, E., Henriksen, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Multi-purpose offshore wind: A case study on integrating passive acoustic surveillance into infrastructure in the North Sea Ferris, M., Clark, E., Arranz, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
The collision risk of migrating birds at wind farms: Final report VolZug project Liedtke, J., Bruneaux, M., Girndt, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Lighting Birds
Offshore wind farms in New Jersey, USA: Stakeholder concerns and anticipated impacts on recreational fishing Shrestha, K., Lal, P., Smith, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Powering a Nature-Positive Future A Renewable Energy Roadmap Sarkar, M., Allinson, T., Asante-Owusu, R. Guidance Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
Integrating Nature into Offshore Wind Development: Stocktake and Recommendations Finalyson, A., Selvaratnam, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning, Stakeholder Engagement
Robust real-time detection of right whale upcalls using neural networks on the edge Hyer, M., Anderson, A., Mann, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Overview of the potential ecological impacts of three offshore locations for wind farms in Aotearoa New Zealand McKinlay, B., van Helden, A., Taylor, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Noise, Vessel Strike Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Modelling of kittiwake metapopulation dynamics (MetaKitti) Summary Report Matthiopoulos, J., Jeglinski, J., Miller, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Threat Assessment for the Critically Endangered North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis) Vanderlaan, A., Lang, S., Sanchez, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Offshore wind farms and marine protected areas in European waters: Better apart than together Lloret, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Advancing multi-use in offshore wind energy planning: Perceived opportunities and barriers in southern New England, U.S. Smith, S., McCann, J., Bingham, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Baseline surveys of Birds, Bats and Marine Mammals in areas for Offshore Wind Farms in the Danish North Sea (North Sea I): Bats – Baseline surveys 2023-2025 North Sea I Brinkløv, S., Smeele, S., Uebel, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Foraging areas of coastal and offshore seabirds in the Dutch North Sea - An analysis of survey and tracking data Madden, H., van Bemmelen, R., van der Have, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Nature+ Conference 2025: Summary and Future Outlook Dutch Marine Energy Centre Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
A prospective life cycle assessment of drivetrain technologies in offshore wind Dighe, V., Bansal, A., Jansen, K. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
The seafloor footprint of offshore wind infrastructure in the United States Ocean Runde, B., Paxton, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Passive acoustic monitoring of baleen whales using autonomous gliders in relation to offshore wind energy areas in the New York Bight Gallagher, K., Baumgartner, M., Kohut, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans

Displaying 121 - 160 of 3852 results