Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3733

Searches title and abstract.
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Offshore Wind Activities and Marine Mammal Protection BOEM Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
SouthCoast Wind Draft Environmental Impact Statement BOEM Office of Renewable Energy Programs Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Recreation & Tourism, Visual Impacts
5th ScotMER Symposium: Ecosystem Level Research Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Getting to 30 GW by 2030: Visual preferences of coastal residents for offshore wind farms on the US East Coast Cranmer, A., Broughel, A., Ericson, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
On the importance of wind turbine wake boundary to wind energy and environmental impact Fan, Z., Li,S., Gao, Z. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Human Dimensions
Zooplankton Survey for Regional Fisheries Monitoring in Southern New England Offshore Wind Development Turner, J., Weig, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Evaluating Potential Impacts of Offshore Wind Development on Fishing Operations by Comparing Fine- and Coarse-Scale Fishery-Dependent Data Allen-Jacobson, L., Jones, A., Mercer, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Tourists are people too: Nonresidents’ values, beliefs, and acceptance of a nearshore wind farm Bidwell, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Recreation & Tourism, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
Benthic and Epifaunal Monitoring During Operation at the Block Island Wind Farm, Rhode Island: Technical Report: Year 4 Erickson, R., Kelly, C., Fonseca, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
5th ScotMER Symposium: Energy Emissions Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF, Noise
Data on benthic species assemblages and seafloor sediment characteristics in an offshore windfarm in the southeastern North Sea Teschke, K., Gusky, M., Gutow, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
5th ScotMER Symposium: Fish and Fisheries Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
5th ScotMER Symposium: Setting the Scene Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
5th ScotMER Symposium: Marine Mammals Marine Scotland Presentation Marine Energy, Tidal, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
SFW01-0097 South Fork Fisheries Monitoring Plan WP4: Fish Pot Survey Year 2 Report Bethoney, N., Olsen, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates
5th ScotMER Symposium: Ornithology 1 Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Birds
Bluepoint Wind: Semi-Annual Progress Report (May 1, 2022 - November 1, 2022) Bluepoint Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Monitoring of Ecology Friendly Rock Berms Cables HKz van Dongen, U. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
Organic matter processing in a [simulated] offshore wind farm ecosystem in current and future climate and aquaculture scenarios Voet, H., Vlaminck, E., van Colen, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions
Reconciling climate action with the need for biodiversity protection, restoration and rehabilitation Gorman, C., Torsney, A., Gaughran, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Minimizing habitat conflicts in meeting net-zero energy targets in the western United States Wu, G., Jones, R., Leslie, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Offshore wind farm construction is noisy – but gadgets used to protect marine mammals are working Graham, I. Magazine Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise
Directional hydrophone clusters reveal evasive responses of small cetaceans to disturbance during construction at offshore windfarms Graham, I., Gillespie, D., Gkikopoulou, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
A Review of Offshore Renewable Energy in South America: Current Status and Future Perspectives Shadman, M., Roldan-Carvajal, M., Pierart, F. Journal Article Marine Energy, Ocean Current, OTEC, Salinity Gradient, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
Evidence that offshore wind farms might affect marine sediment quality and microbial communities Wang, T., Ru, X., Deng, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Insights from the management of offshore energy resources: Toward an ecosystem-services based management approach for deep-ocean industries Bravo, M., Brandt, M., van der Grient, J. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Changes in Flow, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Social & Economic Data
Diverse responses of coastal communities to offshore wind farming development in Southern Spain Frolova, M., Pérez-Pérez, B., Herrero-Luque, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Marine Renewable Energy: Policy, People, and Prospects Wickizer, B., Brandt, D., Robertson, B. Book Chapter Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related to Heat from Buried Transmission Cables Middleton, P., Barnhart, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Progressive Insights in Changing Species Distribution Patterns Informing Marine Management Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Underwater noise reduction of offshore wind turbine using compact circular liner Zhou, T., Guo, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
The Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms on Coastal Tourists’ Behaviors in South Korea Oh, C., Nam, J., Kim, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Visual Impacts
SAINT-NAZAIRE Bilan environnemental annuel 2022 Parc éolien en mer de Saint-Nazaire Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals
Environmental assessment of proposed areas for offshore wind farms off southern Brazil based on ecological niche modeling and a species richness index for albatrosses and petrels Lemos, C., Hernandez, M., Vilardo, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Revolution Wind COP Appendix M: MARA Non-Technical Summary SEARCH, Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Green development strategy of offshore wind farm in China guided by life cycle assessment Chen, J., Mao, B., Wu, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Annual Monitoring Survey of the Sunrise Wind Farm Lease Area - 2022 Annual Report O'Hara, T., Garcia, L., Siemann, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Getting ready for offshore wind farm expansion in the North Sea Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Probabilistic Assessment and Comparison of Scour Protections at Horns Rev 3 and Egmond aan Zee Offshore Wind Farms Chambel, J., Fazeres-Ferradosa, T., Figueiredo, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Cumulative Historic Resources Visual Effects Assessment Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
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