Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents Related to Fixed Offshore Wind

Total results: 3196
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix V: Benthic Resource Characterization Reports RPS group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Kitty Hawk North Wind COP Appendix T: Offshore Bat Acoustic Survey Report Tetra Tech Inc. Report Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Environmental Effects of U.S. Offshore Wind Energy Development: Compilation of Educational Research Briefs SEER, Green, R., Hein, C. Summary Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles
Current state of knowledge Electromagnetic fields: Electromagnetic fields and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive Descriptor 11 Energy Hermans, A., Schilt, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Reef effect of offshore structures on the occurrence and foraging activity of harbour porpoises Fernandez-Betelu, O., Graham, I., Thompson, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Evaluation of a coastal acoustic buoy for cetacean detections, bearing accuracy and exclusion zone monitoring Palmer, K. , Tabbutt, S., Gillespie, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
International assessment of priority environmental issues for land-based and offshore wind energy development Green, R., Gill, E., Hein, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
Windfarms, fishing and benthic recovery: Overlaps, risks and opportunities Dunkley, F., Solandt, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Pile driving repeatedly impacts the giant scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) Jézéquel, Y., Cones, S., Jensen, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Invertebrates
Categorizing Active Marine Acoustic Sources Based on Their Potential to Affect Marine Animals Ruppel, C., Weber, T., Staaterman, E. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
2020 Drop Camera Survey of Benthic Communities and Substrate in the 501N Study Area and an adjacent Control Area (Vineyard Wind) Stokesbury, K., Riley, C., Lego, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Boosting offshore wind skills for environmental professions Munro, P., Elliot, M., Mazik, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Spatial assessment of benthic compensatory habitats for offshore wind farm impacts Ward, O., Aberson, M., Kirby, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Vulnerability of pelagic seabirds to the introduction of offshore renewable energy infrastructure off the Irish coast Murphy, E., Jessopp, M. Research Study Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
To study the effect on marine ecosystems of noise emitted by offshore wind farms during construction and operation phases, is it relevant to focus on a few species? Henry, S., Ceyrac, L., Le Courtois, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Noise
RAPPORT D’ACTIVITÉ MR10 ANNÉE N+2 MAZIERE, H., LABORIE, J., Pineaux, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Prinses Amalia Windturbine park 2022 Leewis, L., Klink, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Chemical Emissions from Offshore Wind Farms - Summary of the Project OffChEm Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals Physical Environment, Water Quality
Environmental Impact Assessment for the decommissioning of offshore wind farms Hall, R., Topham, E., João, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
RAPPORT D’ACTIVITÉ MR9 Année N+1 MAZIERE, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Can the development of offshore renewable energy projects and their shore connection have an effect on the evolution of the coastline? Henry, S., Cartier, A., Duperrent, A. Magazine Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Assessment of compensatory measures for impacts of offshore windfarms on seabirds McGregor, R., Trinder, M., Goodship, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions
Assessing the potential for offshore infrastructure as platforms for environmental monitoring Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Future environmental scenarios for offshore wind expansion Still, D., Pacitto, S., Miller, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Passive Acoustic Telemetry as a Tool to Monitor the Baseline Presence and Persistence of Highly Migratory Fish Species in Popular Recreational Fishing Grounds within the Southern New England Wind Energy Area Gervelis, B., Kneebone, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement Fish, Pelagic Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Hornsea 2 Wind Farm Siemens Gamesa Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Powering Healthy Seas: Accelerating Nature Positive Offshore Wind Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
North Sea crossing by Eurasian Curlew: Timing and routes of Curlew migration in relation to offshore wind developments Collier, M., Potts, P., Hoodless, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
Suivi par acoustique passive du bruit ambiant et de la fréquentation des mammifères marins dans le cadre de la construction du parc éolien en mer de SaintNazaire: Phase de construction : Mesure de Suivi N°8 Chompret, J., Bellanger, J., Clorennec, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix L: Onshore Ecological Assessment and Field Survey Report Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Physical Environment
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix P1: Avian and Bat Risk Assessment Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix J1: Offshore EMF Assessment Exponent Engineering P.C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix N1: Essential Fish Habitat Assessment INSPIRE Environmental Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix O1: Marine Mammal, Sea Turtle, and ESA-Listed Fish Assessment Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix P2: Post-construction Avian and Bat Monitoring Framework Wing Goodale, M., Gilbert, A., Stenhouse, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Sunrise Wind Construction and Operations Plan Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix J2: Onshore EMF Assessment Exponent Engineering P.C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix O3: Sea Turtle and ESA-listed Fish Protected Species Mitigation and Monitoring Plan LGL Ecological Research Associates, Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix I3: Offshore In-Air Acoustic Assessment Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Sunrise Wind COP Appendix N2: Ichthyoplankton Entrainment Assessment TRC Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
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