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Fixed Offshore Wind

Fixed Offshore Wind Energy Foundation Types
Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 4137

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
The Potential Compatibility of Offshore Wind Power and Fisheries: An Example using Bluefin Tuna in the Adriatic Sea Fayram, A., Risi, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
COWRIE Workshop on the Cumulative Impact of Offshore Windfarms on Birds Norman, T., Buisson, R., Askew, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
MER Offshore Windmolenpark Bligh Bank Belwind NV De Sutter, R., Volckaet, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries
Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Benthic Grab Survey 2006 Monitoring Report Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Delivering Community Benefits from Wind Energy Development: A Toolkit Hassan, G., Capener, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Baseline Report Fish & Fisheries Lockwood, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Life Cycle Assessment and Emergy Synthesis of Theoretical Offshore Wind Farm for Jacksonville, Florida Dolan, S. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Benthic Trawl Survey 2006 Monitoring Report Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Belwind Environmental Impact Study: Non-Technical Summary De Sutter, R., Volckaet, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries
Visual assessment of off-shore wind turbines: The influence of distance, contrast, movement and social variables Bishop, I., Miller, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Changes in Bird Habitat Utilisation around the Horns Rev 1 Offshore Wind Farm, with Particular Emphasis on Common Scoter Petersen, I., Fox, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Public Opinion about Large Offshore Wind Power: Underlying Factors Firestone, J., Kempton, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Proceedings of the NWCC Wildlife Workgroup Research Planning Meeting VI Schwartz, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds
Background noise measurements for MEP-NSW Baseline T0 de Haan, D., Burggraaf, D., Asjes, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Offshore wind farms: Effects on the water exchange of the Baltic Sea Burchard, H. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Standard Investigation of the Impacts of Offshore Wind Turbines on the Marine Environment (StUK3) Bellebaum, J., Betke, K., Binder, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Measurement and Reduction of Offshore Wind Turbine Construction Noise Elmer, K., Gerasch, W., Neumann, T. Magazine Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Annual FEPA Monitoring Report (2005-6) Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Interim Ornithology Chapter Gill, J.P., Mitchell, A., Pinder, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Collision Mortalities at Horseshoe Shoal of Bird Species of Special Concern Hatch, J., Brault, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Seabirds, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Estimation of seabird numbers in the German North Sea throughout the annual cycle and their biogeographic importance Garthe, S., Sonntag, N., Schwemmer, P. Magazine Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Perception of Low-Frequency Acoustic Signals by a Harbour Propoise (Phocoena phocoena) in the Presence of Simulated Offshore Wind Turbine Noise Lucke, K., Lepper, P., Hoeve, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Wind Farm - Kriegers Flak: Environmental Impact Assessment Sweden Offshore Wind AB Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
The Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) on Sleneset and Windpower Jacobsen, K., Rov, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Raptors, Birds
Perception of Low-Frequency Acoustic Signals by a Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) in the Presence of Simulated Offshore Wind Turbine Noise Lucke, K., Lepper, P., Hoeve, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Potential Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Noise on Fish Thomsen, F., Judd, A., Lüdemann, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
Many ways to say 'no', different ways to say 'yes': Applying Q-Methodology to understand public acceptance of wind farm proposals Ellis, G., Barry, J., Robinson, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement
Egmond aan Zee Offshore Wind Farm (OWEZ) Vestas Wind Systems A/S Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Tern Observations Near Monomoy Island ESS Group Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Revised Navigational Risk Assessment ESS Group, Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Navigation, Human Dimensions
Summary on Harbour Porpoise Monitoring 1999-2006 around Nysted and Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farms Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Habitat Change Marine Mammals
Offshore Wind Farms and the Environment: Danish Experiences from Horns Rev and Nysted Danish Energy Agency Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Harbour Porpoises on Horns Reef Effects of the Horns Reef Wind Farm Jakob, T., Carstensen, J., Wisz, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
An Investigation into the Effects of Underwater Piling Noise on Salmonids Nedwell, J., Turnpenny, A., Lovell, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Pelagic Fish
Summary on Seal Monitoring 1999-2005 around Nysted and Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farms Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Pinnipeds, Marine Mammals
Danish Offshore Wind: Key Environmental Issues Dong Energy, Vattenfall, Danish Energy Agency Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Review Report 2005: The Danish Offshore Wind Farm Demonstration Project: Horns Rev and Nysted Offshore Wind Farms Environmental Impact Assessment and Monitoring Dong Energy, Vattenfall Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Baseline data on harbour seals, Phoca vitulina, in relation to the intended wind farm site OWEZ, in the Netherlands Brasseur, S., Reijnders, P., Meesters, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
A Report on the Perceptions of the Fishing Industry into the Potential Socio-Economic Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Developments on their Work Patterns and Income Mackinson, S., Curtis, H., Brown, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Harbour Seals at Horns Reef Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm Tougaard, J., Tougaard, S., Jensen, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Use of Aerial Surveys to Detect Bird Displacement by Offshore Windfarms Maclean, I., Skov, H., Rehfisch, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds

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