Skip to main content

Fixed Offshore Wind

Fixed Offshore Wind Energy Foundation Types
Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3873

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Final Report on Aerial Monitoring of Seals near Nysted Offshore Wind Farm Teilmann, J., Carstensen, J., Dietz, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Review of the Current State of Knowledge on the Environmental Impacts of the Location, Operation and Removal/Disposal of Offshore Wind-Farms OSPAR Commission Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Assessing the Impacts of Wind Farms on Birds Drewitt, A., Langston, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds
Information Needs to Support Environmental Impact Assessments of the Effects of European Marine Offshore Wind Farms on Birds Fox, A., Desholm, M., Kahlert, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Bird Migration Studies and Potential Collision Risk with Offshore Wind Turbines Hüppop, O., Dierschke, J., Exo, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Passerines
Radio Telemetry as a Tool for Impact Assessment of Wind Farms: The Case of Little Terns Sterna albifrons at Scroby Sands, Norfolk, UK Perrow, M., Skeate, E., Lines, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Remote Techniques for Counting and Estimating the Number of Bird-Wind Turbine Collisions at Sea: A Review Desholm, M., Fox, A., Beasley, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
Wind Turbine Underwater Noise and Marine Mammals: Implications of Current Knowledge and Data Needs Madsen, P., Wahlberg, M., Tougaard, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Offshore Wind Energy Research on Environmental Impacts Köller, J., Köppel, J., Peters, W. Book Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fish, Ecosystem Processes, Birds
The Influence Of Offshore Windpower On Demersal Fish Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T., Öhman, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
The Development and Use of Individuals-Based Models to Predict the Effects of Habitat Loss and Disturbance on Waders and Waterfowl West, A., Caldow, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Habitat Change Waterfowl, Shorebirds, Birds
Offshore Windmill Farms: Threats to or Possibilities for the Marine Environment Petersen, J., Malm, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Distribution and Behaviour of Common Scoter Melanitta nigra Relative to Prey Resources and Environmental Parameters Kaiser, M., Galanidi, M., Showler, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Waterfowl, Ecosystem Processes, Birds
Likely Sensitivity of Bottlenose Dolphins to Pile-Driving Noise David, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Ecological Research on Offshore Wind Farms: International Exchange of Experiences - Part B Zucco, C., Wende, W., Merck, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Final Results of Bird Studies at the Offshore Wind Farms at Nysted and Horns Rev, Denmark Petersen, I., Christensen, T., Kahlert, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Final Underwater Noise Analysis of Cape Wind Energy Project ESS Group Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Distribution of Harbour Seals in the German Bight in Relation to Offshore Wind Power Plants Adelung, D., Kierspel, M., Liebsch, N. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Galway Bay Test Site Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) Project Site Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Impact of Windfarm OWEZ on the Local Macrobenthos Community Daan, R., Mulder, M., Bergman, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Impacts of Offshore Wind Farm Construction on Harbour Porpoises: Acoustic Monitoring of Echolocation Activity using Porpoise Detectors (T-PODs) Carstensen, J., Henriksen, O., Teilmann, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Effect of Electromagnetic Fields on Marine Organisms Bochert, R., Zettler, M. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF
Ecological Research on Offshore Wind Farms: International Exchange of Experiences - Part A Zucco, C., Wende, W., Merck, T. Workshop Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
The MINOS Project: Ecological Assessments of Possible Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Projects Kellermann, A., Eskildsen, K., Frank, B. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Seabirds, Marine Mammals, Birds
Bird collision monitoring system for multi megawatt wind turbines WT-Bird: Summary of prototype development and testing Wiggelinkhuizen, E., Rademakers, L., Barhorst, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
Humber Gateway Offshore Wind Farm: Marine Mammal Survey Report Shepherd, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Response of Offshore Cultivated Laminaria saccharina to Hydrodynamic Forcing in the North Sea Buck, B., Buchholz, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Human Dimensions
Tilting at Offshore Windmills: Regulating Wind Farm Development Within the Renewable Energy Zone Scott, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Ormonde Project Scoping Study for Coastal and Seabed Processes Coates, T., Skipper, C., Cranmer, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Gwynt y Môr Offshore Wind Farm Environmental Statement RWE Group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Grab Survey Field Report Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Scroby Sands Seal Monitoring: Analysis of the 2005 Post-Construction Aerial Surveys Skeate, E., Perrow, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Baseline Studies North Sea Wind Farms: Fluxes, Flight Paths and Altitudes of Flying Birds 2003-2004 Krijgsveld, K., Lensink, R., Schekkerman, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Birds
Environmental effect studies – Status more than two years after the erection of Horns Rev and Nysted Offshore Wind Farms Boesen, C., Andersen, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Wake Effects of Large Offshore Wind Farms Identified from Satellite SAR Christiansen, M., Hasager, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
The Potential for Cooperative Management of Elasmobranchs and Offshore Renewable Energy Development in UK Waters Gill, A., Kimber, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Fish
Review Report 2004: The Danish Offshore Wind Farm Demonstration Project: Horns Rev and Nysted Offshore Wind Farms Environmental Impact Assessment and Monitoring Boesen, C., Kjær, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Beam Trawl Survey Report Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Physical Environment
Post-Construction Results from The North Hoyle Offshore Wind Farm May, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
An Evaluation of the Wildlife Impacts of Offshore Wind Development Relative to Fossil Fuel Power Production Jarvis, C. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Fish, Birds

Displaying 3681 - 3720 of 3873 results