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Fixed Offshore Wind

Fixed Offshore Wind Energy Foundation Types
Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Tethys is a knowledge hub that contains documents on the environmental effects of wind and marine energy. The table below contains all of the documents in the Tethys Knowledge Base associated with Fixed Offshore Wind.

Total: 3983

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Risks to Birds and Wildlife from Offshore Wind Farms: BOEMRE NC Task Force Peterson, C. Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Modelling Seabird Collision Risk with Off-Shore Wind Farms Mateos, M., Arroyo, G., Rosario, J. Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Wind Energy's Subtle Effect - Habitat Fragmentation Pruett, J. Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Habitat Change Bats, Birds
Human pressures on UK seabed habitats: a cumulative impact assessment Foden, J., Rogers, S., Jones, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
The Marine Environmental Monitoring Plan (MEMP) for Scotland's First Offshore WInd Farm: Robin Rigg, Solway Firth, Scotland Walls, R., Shenton, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Noise Marine Mammals
Identifying a Range of Options to Prevent or Reduce Avian Collision with Offshore Wind Farms using a UK-Based Case Study Cook, A., Ross-Smith, V., Roos, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Measuring the interaction between marine features of Special Protection Areas with offshore wind farm development zones through telemetry: first breeding season report Thaxter, C., Ross-Smith, V., Clark, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Life Cycle Assessment of the Offshore Wind Farm Alpha Ventus Wagner, H., Baack, C., Eickelkamp, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Compendium of Avian Occurrence Information for the Continental Shelf Waters along the Atlantic Coast of the United States: Final Report (Database Selection - Shorebirds) O'Connell, A., Spiegel, C., Johnson, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Shorebirds
Environmental Effects and the Permitting Processes for a Deep Water Offshore Wind-Wave Hybrid Generator DeVault, G. Report Wind Energy, Wave, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy
Benefits and Disadvantages of Co-Locating Windfarms and Marine Conservation Zones, with a Focus on Commercial Fishing Blyth-Skyrme, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy
Blue Seas - Green Energy: A Sectoral Marine Plan for Offshore Wind Energy in Scottish Territorial Waters (Post Adoption Statement) APS Group Scotland Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data
Economic Assessment of Short Term Options for Offshore Wind Energy in Scottish Territorial Waters: Costs and Benefits to Other Marine Users and Interests APS Group Scotland Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Habitats Regulations Appraisal of Draft Plan for Offshore Wind Energy in Scottish Territorial Waters: Information for Appropriate Assessment APS Group Scotland Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Habitats Regulations Appraisal of Draft Plan for Offshore Wind Energy in Scottish Territorial Waters: Proposed Approach for the Screening and Assessment of the Short and Medium Term Options APS Group Scotland Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Legal & Policy
Blue Seas - Green Energy: A Sectoral Marine Plan for Offshore Wind Energy in Scottish Territorial Waters (The Plan) APS Group Scotland Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Habitats Regulations Appraisal of Draft Plan for Offshore Wind Energy in Scottish Territorial Waters: Pre-Screening Review of the Medium Term Options APS Group Scotland Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Visual Tracking From a Rigid-Hulled Inflatable Boat to Determine Foraging Movements of Breeding Terns Perrow, M., Gilroy, J., Skeate, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Seabirds, Birds
Annual environmental report 2010 - Belwind phase 1 Belwind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Navigation
Sustainable Development for Welsh Seas: Our Approach to Marine Planning in Wales Storer, A. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Aggregation and Feeding Behaviour of Pouting (Trisopterus luscus) at Wind Turbines in the Belgian Part of the North Sea Reubens, J., Degraer, S., Vincx, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Foraging ranges of northern gannets Morus bassanus in relation to proposed offshore wind farms in the UK Langston, R., Boggio, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Porpoises North of Sprogø Before, During and After Construction of an Offshore Wind Farm Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals
Gwynt y Môr Offshore Wind Farm LTD: Decommissioning Strategy Drew, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Understanding Public Responses to Offshore Wind Power Haggett, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
The UK Offshore Wind Power Programme: A Sea-Change in UK Energy Policy? Toke, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Why Offshore Wind Energy? Esteban, M., Diez, J., Lopez, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Responses of Harbour Porpoises to Pile Driving at the Horns Rev II Offshore Wind Farm in the Danish North Sea Brandt, M., Diederichs, A., Betke, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
A Sustainability Index for Offshore Wind Farms and Open Water Aquaculture Benassai, G., Stenberg, C., Christoffersen, M. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Selected findings from the baseline and targeted monitoring Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
Comparing Pre- and Post-Construction Distributions of Long-Tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis in and around the Nysted Offshore Wind Farm, Denmark: A Quasi-Designed Experiment Accounting for Imperfect Detection, Local Surface Features and Autocorrelation Petersen, I., Mackenzie, M., Rexstad, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Waterfowl, Birds
Fencing in the bay? Place attachment, social representations of energy technologies and the protection of restorative environments Devine-Wright, P. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Risk Evaluation for Federally Listed (Roseate Tern, Piping Plover) or Candidate (Red Knot) Bird Species in Offshore Waters: A First Step for Managing the Potential Impacts of Wind Facility Development on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Burger, J., Gordon, C., Lawrence, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Shorebirds, Seabirds, Physical Environment, Birds
Effect of the Horns Rev 1 Offshore Wind Farm on Fish Communities: Follow-up Seven Years after Construction Leonhard, S., Stenberg, C., Støttrup, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish
Offshore Wind Farms: Foundations and Influence on the Littoral Processes Esteban, M., López-Gutiérrez, J., Diez, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Intervisibility Analysis of an Offshore Wind Farm Using GIS Tools Errico, A., Guastaferro, F., Oliviero, C. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Visual Impacts
Belwind General Electric Company , Vestas Wind Systems A/S Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
The Cape Wind Offshore Wind Energy Project: A Case Study of the Difficult Transition to Renewable Energy Kimmell, K., Stalenhoef, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Renewable Energy and the Public: from NIMBY to Participation Devine-Wright, P. Book Wind Energy, Wave, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy, Land-Based Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Local Birds in and around the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee (OWEZ) Leopold, M., Dijkman, E., Teal, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds

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