Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Ecological impacts of offshore wind power construction and operation on zooplankton communities in South China sea Peng, Z., Lu, M., Huang, W., Tang, Y., Li, S., Qin, H., Wang, L., Ye, J., Long, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Invertebrates
Spatio-temporal dynamics of fish assemblages at an offshore wind farm and a comparison with mature artificial reefs Shao, K., Chang, C., Chen, C., Ho, L., Shao, Y., Chiang, H., Lee, W., Tsai, H., Huang, T., Chang, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Mapping benthic biodiversity to facilitate future sustainable development Cooper, K., Thompson, M., Bolam, S., Peach, C., Webb, T., Downie, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
A comprehensive review of geophysical survey techniques for offshore wind farm projects Ayres, C., Neto, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
10 Things to consider before approving another offshore wind farm: A case study for Highland, Scotland Goddijn-Murphy, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Human Dimensions
Anticipating potential environmental risks of offshore hydrogen production powered by offshore wind farm Dussauze, M., Wlodarczyk, R., Labed-Veydert, T., Labourgade, P., Michelet, N., Pichavant-Rafini, K., Dubranna, J., Mellaza, L., Theron, M., Robert, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Water Quality
Recommendations and Roadmap (WP4): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments Butler, A., Lorenzo-Arribas, A., Hague, A., Searle, K., Daunt, F., Furness, R.W., Matthiopoulos, J., Miller, S.C., Couto, A.S., Delacombe, K., Jones, E.L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
Uncertainty and approaches to evaluating uncertainty (WP1): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments Furness, R.W., Searle, K., Jones, E., Delacombe, K., Butler, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Summary report of sensitivity analysis (WP2): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments Butler, A., Matthiopoulos, J., Lorenzo-Arribas, A., Searle, K., Delacombe, K., Jones, E.L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
An Oceanography-Based Anticipatory Approach to Monitoring Fisheries and Fishery Resource Impacts From Offshore Wind Farms: A Perspective From the Mid-Atlantic Bight, USA Grothues, T., Adolf, J., Borsetti, S., Coleman, K., Dunton, K., Kohut, J., Munroe, D., O'Leary, S., Saba, G., Zemeckis, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries
Offshore wind farms and marine protected areas in European waters: Better apart than together Lloret, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Case-dependent impacts of offshore wind farms on ecosystems: A systematic review and meta-analysis Thomassen, J., Brown, E., Henriksen, O., Mildenberger, T., Galparsoro, I., Clausen, N., van Deurs, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Offshore wind turbines constitute benthic secondary production hotspots on and around constructions Dannheim, J., Beermann, J., Coolen, J., Vanaverbeke, J., Degraer, S., Birchenough, S., Garcia, C., Lacroix, G., Fiorentino, D., Lindeboom, H., Krone, R., Pehlke, H., Braeckman, U., Brey, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Environmental Risks and Impacts of Offshore Energy: A Literature Review Pontinha, D., Bispo, L., Gervásio, H., Aktuglu, Y. Conference Paper Marine Energy, OTEC, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Future cumulative effects on demersal fish in a transforming North Sea pressure landscape Rehren, J., Kruse, M., Probst, N., Gordo-Vilaseca, C., Lemmen, C., Krishna, S., Stelzenmüller, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Fish, Demersal Fish
ORJIP BenCH: Benthic habitat changes postconstruction of offshore wind (Final report) Hubble, M., O'Brien, N., Villanueva-Brackley, A., Meadows, A., Greener, K., Pears, S, Pillay, T., Skein, L., Strong, J., Landeghem, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
An ecological risk assessment for the impacts of offshore wind farms on sharks and rays in Australia Werry, J., Meager, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Assessing, monitoring and mitigating the effects of offshore wind farms on biodiversity Watson, S., Szostek, C., Edwards-Jones, A., Wills, B., Watson, G., Beaumont, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Displacement, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
The impact of offshore wind turbine foundations on local hydrodynamics and stratification in the Southern North Sea Hendriks, E., Langedock, K., van Duren, L., Vanaverbeke, J., Boone, W., Soetaert, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Strategic Compensation Studies: Efficacy of predator reduction measures – a literature review Tarbet, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl, Terrestrial Mammals
Modeling consequences of spatial closures for offshore energy: Loss of fishing grounds and fishery-independent data Campbell, M., Samhouri, J., White, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Economic Viability and Environmental Assessment of Marine Renewable Energy Technologies: A Comparative Framework for Tidal Stream Energy and Offshore Wind Power in the United States Bajaj, A. Journal Article Tidal, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Passerines, Fish, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Navigation, Social & Economic Data
Preventing scour at offshore monopile foundation using artificial reefs: Hydrodynamic processes and scour reduction Gao, Y., Chen, J., Lei, Y., Liu, R., BI, C., Li, H., Yuan, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Expected occurrence of wildlife in US Atlantic offshore wind areas Brill, D., Cleary, J., Roberts, J., O'Brien, B., Halpin, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Investigating Interactions Between Fish and Offshore Wind Farms Using Acoustic Telemetry Couturier, L., Taormina, B., Labourgade, P., Hervé, H., Woillez, M., Boujea, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates
Offshore Wind Impact on Oceanographic Processes: North Carolina to New York, Volume 1 - RPS Georgas, N., Garavelli, L., Codiga, D., Day, E., Engel, L., Hemery, L., Misa, M., Monim, M., Moghadam, H., Morandi, A., Ilia, A., Speers, J., Tajallibakhsh, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Towards Nature Positive for the Ocean: Pathways for Corporate Contributions Carrow, A., Lynch, L., Kroner, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
The impacts of human-made structures on larval connectivity in the northern North Sea Barton, B., De Dominicis, M., Woolf, D., Want, A., Bell, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Invertebrates
Metagenomic biodiversity assessment within an offshore wind farm Serivichyaswat, P., Scholte, T., Wilms, T., Stranddorf, L., van der Valk, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Water Quality
South Fork Wind Benthic Monitoring Program: Sediment Profile and Plan View Imaging (SPI/PV), ROV-based Sampling, and Sediment Grab Sampling INSPIRE Environmental Webpage Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Frequently Asked Questions: Offshore Wind and Whales Whale Communications Committee Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Displacement, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Offshore wind farms modify coastal food web dynamics by enhancing suspension feeder pathways De Borger, E., Van Oevelen, D., Mavraki, N., De Backer, A., Braeckman, U., Soetaert, K., Vanavebeke, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates
Exploratory Cross-Scale Characterization of Oceanographic Data Surrounding Offshore Wind Areas Noor, N. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Biodiversity Information of benthic Species at ARtificial structures - BISAR Dannheim, J., Kloss, P., Vanaverbeke, J., Mavraki, N., Zupan, M., Spielmann, V., Degraer, S., Birchenough, S., Janas, U., Sheehan, E., Teschke, K., Gill, A., Hutchison, Z., Carey, D., Rasser, M., Buyse, J., Weide, B., Bittner, O., Causon, P., Krone, R., Faasse, M., Wrede, A., Coolen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Offshore wind FAQs Australian Marine Conservation Society Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Offshore wind development: library of strategic compensatory measures Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs Webpage Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
This is EPIC: Extensive Periphery for Impact and Control to study seabird habitat loss in and around offshore wind farms combining a peripheral control area and Bayesian statistics Grundlehner, A., Leopold, M., Kersten, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Offshore Wind Impact on Oceanographic Processes: North Carolina to New York - DHI Johnson, T., Simpson, E., Bell, M., van Berkel, J., Petersen, O., Hansen, F., Hernandez, B., Saw, Y., Mortensen, L., Snyder, D., Thomsen, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
ScotMER 7th Symposium 2025: EcoWind Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
ScotMER 7th Symposium 2025: Physical Processes Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Water Quality
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