One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind.
Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species
The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.
| Title | Author | Date Sort ascending | Content Type | Technology | Stressor | Receptor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Storylines of Nature Inclusive Design in Dutch Offshore Wind Farm decommissioning | Boer, F. | Thesis | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement | |
| Identifying causes and consequences of ecosystem decline in the Irish Sea through bow-tie analysis | Kolbuk, D., Bremner, J., Cahillane, A., Di Gennaro, V., Crowe, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Recreation & Tourism, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement | |
| Turbulence drives seabed modification by offshore windfarms | Unsworth, C., McCarron, C., Whitehouse, R., Benson, T., Barranco, I., Clare, M., Waggitt, J., Skein, L., Huvenne, V., Austin, M., Van Landeghem, K. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Physical Environment, Sediment Transport | |
| Nature‑Friendly Decommissioning of Offshore Energy Infrastructure: What happens to North Sea marine life? | Stichting De Noordzee | Webpage | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Habitat Change | Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment | |
| Background Document on Nature-Friendly Decommissioning of Offshore Energy Infrastructure | Jørgensen, A-M., Somers, P., Elsman, V., Pattyn, J., Maus, E. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | ||
| DiverLog: Effects of Offshore Wind Farms on the Behaviour, Energetics and Habitat Use of Red-throated Divers | Burger, C., Salazar, S., Liedtke, J., Heinänen, S., Welcker, J., Nehls, G. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds | |
| Evaluating environmental impacts and public preferences in offshore wind farm decommissioning | Stranddorf, L., Ladenburg, J., Rönnblom, A., Landström, L., Olsen, S. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Life Cycle Assessment, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement | |
| A Structured Techno-Economic and Socio-Regulatory Comparison of Onshore, Fixed-Bottom Offshore, and Floating Offshore Wind Energy Systems | Koondhar, M. A., Afridi, S. K., Alsenani, T., Mahariq, I., Zeinoddini-Meymand, H., Shahnia, F., Touti, E. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Collision, Habitat Change, Noise | Bats, Birds, Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts | |
| Beyond Local Footprints: Disentangling Large-Scale Redistribution and Local Abundance Responses to Offshore Wind Farms | Mercker, M., Garthe, S., Peschko, V., Borkenhagen, K., Markones, N., Schwemmer, H., Dierschke, V. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds | |
| DMEC Deep Dive: Environmental Monitoring Highlights | Dutch Marine Energy Centre | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | ||
| From sea basins to projects: Process harmonization for better environmental monitoring | Offshore Coalition For Energy & Nature (OCEaN) | Guidance | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise | Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy | |
| Fish and Fisheries Offshore Wind Research Gaps Analysis | Responsible Offshore Science Alliance (ROSA) | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise | Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data | |
| Conservation potential of offshore windfarms for epibenthic invertebrates and fish communities in a heavily used regional sea | Probst, W., Rehren, J., Kraan, C., Haslob, H., Neumann, H., Lemmen, C., Krishna, S., Kruse, M., Wirtz, K., Stelzenmüller, V. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Fish, Demersal Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries | |
| Multi-criteria evaluation of marine renewable energy sources using TOPSIS for coastal pollution mitigation and sustainable development | Teng, M., Zhi, G., Tolba, A., Yu, J., Assal, M., Park, J.H., Alnuaim, A.A. | Journal Article | Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Chemicals, Habitat Change | Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data | |
| Ecological impacts of offshore wind power construction and operation on zooplankton communities in South China sea | Peng, Z., Lu, M., Huang, W., Tang, Y., Li, S., Qin, H., Wang, L., Ye, J., Long, Y. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change, Noise | Invertebrates | |
| Spatio-temporal dynamics of fish assemblages at an offshore wind farm and a comparison with mature artificial reefs | Shao, K., Chang, C., Chen, C., Ho, L., Shao, Y., Chiang, H., Lee, W., Tsai, H., Huang, T., Chang, C. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Habitat Change | Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries | |
| Changes in the distribution and abundance of common scoter and diver species in the Horns Rev I, II and III offshore windfarm areas, Denmark, 2025: Bird distribution responses to wind farms, Horns Rev | Scott-Hayward, L., Petersen, I.K., Mackenzie, M., Pedersen, C., Isojunno, S., Nielsen, R. D., Sterup, J., Thomsen, H., Neergaard, R. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise | Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl | |
| Mapping benthic biodiversity to facilitate future sustainable development | Cooper, K., Thompson, M., Bolam, S., Peach, C., Webb, T., Downie, A. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Physical Environment | |
| A comprehensive review of geophysical survey techniques for offshore wind farm projects | Ayres, C., Neto, A. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Physical Environment | |
| Anticipating potential environmental risks of offshore hydrogen production powered by offshore wind farm | Dussauze, M., Wlodarczyk, R., Labed-Veydert, T., Labourgade, P., Michelet, N., Pichavant-Rafini, K., Dubranna, J., Mellaza, L., Theron, M., Robert, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Physical Environment, Water Quality | |
| 10 Things to consider before approving another offshore wind farm: A case study for Highland, Scotland | Goddijn-Murphy, L. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Collision, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise | Human Dimensions | |
| Decadal trends in macrobenthic communities in offshore wind farms: Disentangling turbine and climate effects | Jammar, C., Reynés-Cardona, A., Vanaverbeke, J., Lefaible, N., Moens, T., Degraer, S., Braeckman, U. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions | |
| Strategic Compensation Studies: Understanding the scale of opportunity for the removal of infrastructure as a potential strategic compensation measure | Offshore Wind Industry Council (OWIC) | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Summary report of sensitivity analysis (WP2): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments | Butler, A., Matthiopoulos, J., Lorenzo-Arribas, A., Searle, K., Delacombe, K., Jones, E.L. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds | |
| Recommendations and Roadmap (WP4): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments | Butler, A., Lorenzo-Arribas, A., Hague, A., Searle, K., Daunt, F., Furness, R.W., Matthiopoulos, J., Miller, S.C., Couto, A.S., Delacombe, K., Jones, E.L. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement | |
| Uncertainty and approaches to evaluating uncertainty (WP1): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments | Furness, R.W., Searle, K., Jones, E., Delacombe, K., Butler, A. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds | |
| An Oceanography-Based Anticipatory Approach to Monitoring Fisheries and Fishery Resource Impacts From Offshore Wind Farms: A Perspective From the Mid-Atlantic Bight, USA | Grothues, T., Adolf, J., Borsetti, S., Coleman, K., Dunton, K., Kohut, J., Munroe, D., O'Leary, S., Saba, G., Zemeckis, D. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Fish, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries | |
| Case-dependent impacts of offshore wind farms on ecosystems: A systematic review and meta-analysis | Thomassen, J., Brown, E., Henriksen, O., Mildenberger, T., Galparsoro, I., Clausen, N., van Deurs, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise | Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals | |
| Offshore wind farms and marine protected areas in European waters: Better apart than together | Lloret, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Scour variability across offshore wind farms (OWFs): identifying site-specific scour drivers as a step towards assessing potential impacts on the marine environment | Garcia, K., Jordan, C., Melling, G., Schendel, A., Welzel, M., Schlurmann, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Physical Environment, Sediment Transport | |
| Offshore wind turbines constitute benthic secondary production hotspots on and around constructions | Dannheim, J., Beermann, J., Coolen, J., Vanaverbeke, J., Degraer, S., Birchenough, S., Garcia, C., Lacroix, G., Fiorentino, D., Lindeboom, H., Krone, R., Pehlke, H., Braeckman, U., Brey, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment | |
| Laying out the foundations: Assessing the spatial extent and drivers of offshore wind turbine artificial reef effects on soft sediments | Lefaible, N., van Colen, C., Jammar, C., Vanaverbeke, J., Moens, T., Van Haelst, S., Norro, A., Degraer, S., Braeckman, U. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport | |
| One Molecule to Find Them: Using eDNA to Quantify and Assess Marine Biodiversity at Offshore Wind Farms | Berger, H. | Thesis | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change | Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Tipping the decision of offshore wind farm decommissioning – The causal effects of biodiversity illustrations and information on the social acceptance | Stranddorf, L., Ladenburg, J., Zuch, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data | |
| Environmental Risks and Impacts of Offshore Energy: A Literature Review | Pontinha, D., Bispo, L., Gervásio, H., Aktuglu, Y. | Conference Paper | Marine Energy, OTEC, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise | Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Future cumulative effects on demersal fish in a transforming North Sea pressure landscape | Rehren, J., Kruse, M., Probst, N., Gordo-Vilaseca, C., Lemmen, C., Krishna, S., Stelzenmüller, V. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change, Noise | Fish, Demersal Fish | |
| ORJIP BenCH: Benthic habitat changes postconstruction of offshore wind (Final report) | Hubble, M., O'Brien, N., Villanueva-Brackley, A., Meadows, A., Greener, K., Pears, S, Pillay, T., Skein, L., Strong, J., Landeghem, K. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Habitat Change | Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Assessing, monitoring and mitigating the effects of offshore wind farms on biodiversity | Watson, S., Szostek, C., Edwards-Jones, A., Wills, B., Watson, G., Beaumont, N. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Displacement, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise | Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals | |
| An ecological risk assessment for the impacts of offshore wind farms on sharks and rays in Australia | Werry, J., Meager, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise | Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Fisheries | |
| The impact of offshore wind turbine foundations on local hydrodynamics and stratification in the Southern North Sea | Hendriks, E., Langedock, K., van Duren, L., Vanaverbeke, J., Boone, W., Soetaert, K. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Habitat Change | Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality |