One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind.
Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species
The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.
| Title | Author | Date Sort ascending | Content Type | Technology | Stressor | Receptor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Turbulence drives seabed modification by offshore windfarms | Unsworth, C. , McCarron, C., Whitehouse, R., Benson, T., Barranco, I. , Clare, M., Waggitt, J., Skein, L., Huvenne, V., Austin, M., Van Landeghem, K. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | ||
| Evaluating environmental impacts and public preferences in offshore wind farm decommissioning | Stranddorf, L., Ladenburg, J., Rönnblom, A., Landström, L., Olsen, S. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Displacement, Habitat Change | Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Life Cycle Assessment, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement | |
| Beyond Local Footprints: Disentangling Large-Scale Redistribution and Local Abundance Responses to Offshore Wind Farms | Mercker, M., Garthe, S., Peschko, V., Borkenhagen, K., Markones, N., Schwemmer, H., Dierschke, V. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds | |
| DMEC Deep Dive: Environmental Monitoring Highlights | Dutch Marine Energy Centre | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | ||
| From sea basins to projects: Process harmonization for better environmental monitoring | Offshore Coalition For Energy & Nature (OCEaN) | Guidance | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise | Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy | |
| Fish and Fisheries Offshore Wind Research Gaps Analysis | Responsible Offshore Science Alliance (ROSA) | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise | Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data | |
| Conservation potential of offshore windfarms for epibenthic invertebrates and fish communities in a heavily used regional sea | Probst, W., Rehren, J., Kraan, C., Haslob, H., Neumann, H., Lemmen, C., Krishna, S., Kruse, M., Wirtz, K., Stelzenmüller, V. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Fish, Demersal Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries | |
| Multi-criteria evaluation of marine renewable energy sources using TOPSIS for coastal pollution mitigation and sustainable development | Teng, M., Zhi, G., Tolba, A., Yu, J., Assal, M., Park, J.H., Alnuaim, A.A. | Journal Article | Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Chemicals, Habitat Change | Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data | |
| Ecological impacts of offshore wind power construction and operation on zooplankton communities in South China sea | Peng, Z., Lu, M., Huang, W., Tang, Y., Li, S., Qin, H., Wang, L., Ye, J., Long, Y. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change, Noise | Invertebrates | |
| Spatio-temporal dynamics of fish assemblages at an offshore wind farm and a comparison with mature artificial reefs | Shao, K., Chang, C., Chen, C., Ho, L., Shao, Y., Chiang, H., Lee, W., Tsai, H., Huang, T., Chang, C. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Habitat Change | Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries | |
| Changes in the distribution and abundance of common scoter and diver species in the Horns Rev I, II and III offshore windfarm areas, Denmark, 2025: Bird distribution responses to wind farms, Horns Rev | Scott-Hayward, L., Petersen, I.K., Mackenzie, M., Pedersen, C., Isojunno, S. , Nielsen, R. D., Sterup, J., Thomsen, H., Neergaard, R. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise | Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl | |
| Mapping benthic biodiversity to facilitate future sustainable development | Cooper, K., Thompson, M., Bolam, S., Peach, C., Webb, T., Downie, A. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Physical Environment | |
| A comprehensive review of geophysical survey techniques for offshore wind farm projects | Ayres, C., Neto, A. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Physical Environment | |
| 10 Things to consider before approving another offshore wind farm: A case study for Highland, Scotland | Goddijn-Murphy, L. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Collision, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise | Human Dimensions | |
| Anticipating potential environmental risks of offshore hydrogen production powered by offshore wind farm | Dussauze, M., Wlodarczyk, R., Labed-Veydert, T., Labourgade, P., Michelet, N., Pichavant-Rafini, K., Dubranna, J., Mellaza, L., Theron, M., Robert, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Physical Environment, Water Quality | |
| Strategic Compensation Studies: Understanding the scale of opportunity for the removal of infrastructure as a potential strategic compensation measure | Offshore Wind Industry Council (OWIC) | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Recommendations and Roadmap (WP4): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments | Butler, A., Lorenzo-Arribas, A., Hague, A., Searle, K., Daunt, F., Furness, R.W., Matthiopoulos, J., Miller, S.C., Couto, A.S., Delacombe, K., Jones, E.L. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement | |
| Uncertainty and approaches to evaluating uncertainty (WP1): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments | Furness, R.W., Searle, K., Jones, E., Delacombe, K., Butler, A. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds | |
| Summary report of sensitivity analysis (WP2): AssESs - Assessing the extent and significance of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments | Butler, A., Matthiopoulos, J., Lorenzo-Arribas, A., Searle, K., Delacombe, K., Jones, E.L. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds | |
| An Oceanography-Based Anticipatory Approach to Monitoring Fisheries and Fishery Resource Impacts From Offshore Wind Farms: A Perspective From the Mid-Atlantic Bight, USA | Grothues, T., Adolf, J., Borsetti, S., Coleman, K., Dunton, K., Kohut, J., Munroe, D., O'Leary, S., Saba, G., Zemeckis, D. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Fish, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries | |
| Offshore wind farms and marine protected areas in European waters: Better apart than together | Lloret, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Case-dependent impacts of offshore wind farms on ecosystems: A systematic review and meta-analysis | Thomassen, J., Brown, E., Henriksen, O., Mildenberger, T., Galparsoro, I., Clausen, N., van Deurs, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise | Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals | |
| Offshore wind turbines constitute benthic secondary production hotspots on and around constructions | Dannheim, J., Beermann, J., Coolen, J., Vanaverbeke, J., Degraer, S., Birchenough, S., Garcia, C., Lacroix, G., Fiorentino, D., Lindeboom, H., Krone, R., Pehlke, H., Braeckman, U., Brey, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment | |
| One Molecule to Find Them: Using eDNA to Quantify and Assess Marine Biodiversity at Offshore Wind Farms | Berger, H. | Thesis | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change | Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Environmental Risks and Impacts of Offshore Energy: A Literature Review | Pontinha, D., Bispo, L., Gervásio, H., Aktuglu, Y. | Conference Paper | Marine Energy, OTEC, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise | Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Future cumulative effects on demersal fish in a transforming North Sea pressure landscape | Rehren, J., Kruse, M., Probst, N., Gordo-Vilaseca, C., Lemmen, C., Krishna, S., Stelzenmüller, V. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change, Noise | Fish, Demersal Fish | |
| ORJIP BenCH: Benthic habitat changes postconstruction of offshore wind (Final report) | Hubble, M., O'Brien, N., Villanueva-Brackley, A., Meadows, A., Greener, K., Pears, S, Pillay, T., Skein, L., Strong, J., Landeghem, K. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Habitat Change | Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| An ecological risk assessment for the impacts of offshore wind farms on sharks and rays in Australia | Werry, J., Meager, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise | Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Fisheries | |
| Assessing, monitoring and mitigating the effects of offshore wind farms on biodiversity | Watson, S., Szostek, C., Edwards-Jones, A., Wills, B., Watson, G., Beaumont, N. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Displacement, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise | Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals | |
| The impact of offshore wind turbine foundations on local hydrodynamics and stratification in the Southern North Sea | Hendriks, E., Langedock, K., van Duren, L., Vanaverbeke, J., Boone, W., Soetaert, K. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Habitat Change | Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality | |
| Strategic Compensation Studies: Efficacy of predator reduction measures – a literature review | Tarbet, A. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl, Terrestrial Mammals | |
| Modeling consequences of spatial closures for offshore energy: Loss of fishing grounds and fishery-independent data | Campbell, M., Samhouri, J., White, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change | Fish, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Strategic Compensation Studies: Overview of Red-throated Diver Compensation Measures and Opportunities for Improving Ecological Outcomes | Offshore Wind Industry Council (OWIC) | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy, Navigation | |
| Economic Viability and Environmental Assessment of Marine Renewable Energy Technologies: A Comparative Framework for Tidal Stream Energy and Offshore Wind Power in the United States | Bajaj, A. | Journal Article | Tidal, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise | Bats, Birds, Passerines, Fish, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Navigation, Social & Economic Data | |
| Preventing scour at offshore monopile foundation using artificial reefs: Hydrodynamic processes and scour reduction | Gao, Y., Chen, J., Lei, Y., Liu, R., BI, C., Li, H., Yuan, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Habitat Change | Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport | |
| Expected occurrence of wildlife in US Atlantic offshore wind areas | Brill, D., Cleary, J., Roberts, J., O'Brien, B., Halpin, P. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change | Birds, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles | |
| Investigating Interactions Between Fish and Offshore Wind Farms Using Acoustic Telemetry | Couturier, L., Taormina, B., Labourgade, P., Hervé, H., Woillez, M., Boujea, J. | Conference Paper | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change | Fish, Invertebrates | |
| Offshore Wind Impact on Oceanographic Processes: North Carolina to New York, Volume 1 - RPS | Georgas, N., Garavelli, L., Codiga, D., Day, E., Engel, L., Hemery, L., Misa, M., Monim, M., Moghadam, H., Morandi, A., Ilia, A., Speers, J., Tajallibakhsh, T. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Changes in Flow, Habitat Change | Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Human Dimensions, Fisheries | |
| Towards Nature Positive for the Ocean: Pathways for Corporate Contributions | Carrow, A., Lynch, L., Kroner, R. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise | Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| The impacts of human-made structures on larval connectivity in the northern North Sea | Barton, B., De Dominicis, M., Woolf, D., Want, A., Bell, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Habitat Change | Invertebrates |