Bat and Bird Interactions with Offshore Wind Energy Development

Nleisleri Bat (Credit: Jens Rydell)

This Educational Research Brief summarizes how birds and bats interact with wind turbines and how that relates to potential collision events and behavioral responses, including avoidance. Given the lack of empirical studies quantifying mortality at offshore wind turbines, inference was based on offshore activity patterns of birds and bats, collision risk from land-based wind farms, and mortality data from other offshore structures. In general, birds and bats respond differently to wind turbines and wind energy facilities, with some species of bats showing some level of attraction and some species of birds exhibiting attraction, displacement, or avoidance behaviors. The Brief also reviews how technologies (e.g., radar, thermal cameras) used to study the behavior of birds and bats may help refine monitoring and minimization strategies.

The Brief was reviewed by external subject matter experts (Dr. Pamela Loring, US Fish and Wildlife Service; Kate Williams, Biodiversity Research Institute; Dr. Trevor Peterson, Stantec; Robin Brabant, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences) and the SEER Science and Technical (S&T) Advisory Committee. These subject matter experts also participated in a panel discussion during the SEER Webinar on Bat and Bird Interactions with Offshore Wind Energy. 

Bat and Bird Interactions with Offshore Wind Energy Development

View a Spanish translation of all SEER Educational Research Briefs here.

The table below contains the relevant literature to this summary.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
A Comprehensive Analysis of Small-Passerine Fatalities from Collision with Turbines at Wind Energy Facilities Erickson, W., Wolfe, M., Bay, K., Johnson, D., Gehring, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds
A Unifying Framework for the Underlying Mechanisms of Avian Avoidance of Wind Turbines May, R. Journal Article Wind Energy Displacement, Avoidance Birds
Activity and behaviour of Nathusius' pipistrelle Pipistrellus nathusii at low and high altitude in a North Sea offshore wind farm Brabant, R., Laurent, Y., Poerink, B., Degraer, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision Bats
An investigation into the potential for wind turbines to cause barotrauma in bats Lawson, M., Jenne, D., Thresher, R., Houck, D., Wimsatt, J., Straw, B. Journal Article Wind Energy Collision Bats
An Updated Review of Hypotheses Regarding Bat Attraction to Wind Turbines Guest, E., Stamps, B., Durish, N., Hale, A., Hein, C., Morton, B., Weaver, S., Fritts, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Attraction, Collision, Noise Bats
Artificial Reef Effect in Relation to Offshore Renewable Energy Conversion: State of the Art Langhamer, O. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment
Assessing fatality minimization for hoary bats amid continued wind energy development Friedenberg, N., Frick, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Bats
Assessing fatality risk of bats at offshore wind turbines Lagerveld, S., Noort, C., Meesters, L., Bach, L., Bach, P., Geelhoed, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Bats, Birds
Atlantic Marine Assessment Program for Protected Species: FY15 – FY19 Palka, D., Aichinger Dias, L., Broughton, E., Chavez-Rosales, S., Cholewiak, D., Davis, G., DeAngelis, A., Garrison, L., Haas, H., Hatch, J., Hyder, K., Jech, M., Josephson, E., Mueller-Brennan, L., Orphanides, C., Pegg, N., Sasso, C., Sigourney, D., Soldevilla, M., Walsh, H. Report Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Avian Collision Risk Models for Wind Energy Impact Assessments Masden, E., Cook, A. Journal Article Wind Energy Displacement, Collision, Avoidance Birds
Avian Fatalities at Wind Energy Facilities in North America: A Comparison of Recent Approaches Johnson, D., Loss, S., Smallwood, K., Erickson, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds
AWWI Technical Report: 2nd Edition: Summary of Bat Fatality Monitoring Data Contained in AWWIC Allison, T., Butryn, R. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Bats
Barriers to Movement: Modelling Energetic Costs of Avoiding Marine Wind Farms Amongst Breeding Seabirds Masden, E., Haydon, D., Fox, A., Furness, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Birds, Seabirds
Bat Workgroup Report for the State of the Science Workshop on Wildlife and Offshore Wind Energy 2020: Cumulative Impacts Hein, C., Williams, K., Jenkins, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Collision Bats
Behavior of Bats at Wind Turbines Cryan, P., Gorresen, P., Hein, C., Schirmacher, M., Diehl, R., Huso, M., Hayman, D., Fricker, P., Bonaccorso, F., Johnson, D., Heist, K., Dalton, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement Bats
Bird Numbers and Distributions in the Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm Area Petersen, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Bird–building collisions in the United States: Estimates of annual mortality and species vulnerability Loss, S., Will, T., Loss, S., Marra, P. Journal Article Collision Birds, Passerines, Human Dimensions
Causes of Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines: Hypotheses and Predictions Cryan, P., Barclay, R. Journal Article Wind Energy Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Bats
Collision and Displacement Vulnerability Among Marine Birds of the California Current System Associated with Offshore Wind Energy Infrastructure Adams, J., Kelsey, E., Felis, J., Pereksta, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Seabirds, Birds
Collision and displacement vulnerability to offshore wind energy infrastructure among marine birds of the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Kelsey, E., Felis, J., Czapanskiy, M., Pereksta, D., Adams, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds
Collision Risk Model for "rufa" Red Knots (Calidris canutus rufa) Interacting with a Proposed Offshore Wind Energy Facility in Nantucket Sound, Massachusetts Gordon, C., Nations, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Shorebirds
Developing an Avian Collision Risk Model to Incorporate Variability and Uncertainty Masden, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Avoidance Birds
Eagle fatalities are reduced by automated curtailment of wind turbines McClure, C., Rolek, B., Dunn, L., McCabe, J., Martinson, L., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Ecological Impacts of Wind Energy Development on Bats: Questions, Research Needs, and Hypotheses Kunz, T., Arnett, E., Erickson, W., Hoar, A., Johnson, G., Larkin, R., Stickland, M., Thresher, R., Tuttle, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Bats
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Empirical Evidence Inspiring Priority Monitoring, Research and Management Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B., Vigin, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Estimating bat fatality at a Texas wind energy facility: implications transcending the United States–Mexico border Weaver, S., Jones, A., Hein, C., Castro-Arellano, I. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Bats
Evaluation of an Acoustic Deterrent to Reduce Bat Mortalities at an Illinois Wind Farm Romano, W., Skalski, J., Townsend, R., Kinzie, K., Coppinger, K., Miller, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Bats
Fatalities at Wind Turbines may Threaten Population Viability of a Migratory Bat Frick, W., Baerwald, E., Pollock, J., Barclay, R., Szymanski, J., Weller, T., Russell, A., Loeb, S., Medellin, R., McGuire, L. Journal Article Wind Energy Collision Bats
Final Results of Bird Studies at the Offshore Wind Farms at Nysted and Horns Rev, Denmark Petersen, I., Christensen, T., Kahlert, J., Desholm, M., Fox, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Griffon Vulture Mortality at Wind Farms in Southern Spain: Distribution of Fatalities and Active Mitigation Measures de Lucas, M., Ferrer, M., Bechard, M., Muñoz, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Birds
Impacts of Wind Energy Development on Bats: Implications for Conservation Arnett, E., Baerwald, E. Book Chapter Wind Energy Displacement, Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Bats
Impacts to Wildlife of Wind Energy Siting and Operation in the United States Allison, T., Diffendorfer, J., Baerwald, E., Beston, J., Drake, D., Hale, A., Hein, C., Huso, M., Loss, S., Lovich, J., Strickland, M., Williams, K., Winder, V. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds
Influencing Activity of Bats by Dimly Lighting Wind Turbine Surfaces with Ultraviolet Light Cryan, P., Gorresen, P., Straw, B., Thao, S., DeGeorge, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision Bats
Life Histories of Bats: Life in the Slow Lane Barclay, R., Harder, L. Book Chapter Wind Energy Collision Bats
Long-term Bat Monitoring on Islands, Offshore Structures, and Coastal Sites in the Gulf of Maine, mid-Atlantic, and Great Lakes Peterson, T. Report Bats
Migration of Bats Past a Remote Island Offers Clues toward the Problem of Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines Cryan, P., Brown, A. Journal Article Wind Energy Collision Bats
Modeling At-Sea Density of Marine Birds to Support Atlantic Marine Renewable Energy Planning Winship, A., Kinlan, B., White, T., Leirness, J., Christensen, J. Report Marine Energy Birds
Northern gannets (Morus bassanus) are strongly affected by operating offshore wind farms during the breeding season Peschko, V., Mendel, B., Mercker, M., Dierschke, J., Garthe, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Seabirds
Offshore Observations of Eastern Red Bats (Lasiurus borealis) in the Mid-Atlantic United States Using Multiple Survey Methods Hatch, S., Connelly, E., Divoll, T., Stenhouse, I., Williams, K. Journal Article Bats
ORJIP Bird Collision and Avoidance Study Skov, H., Heinänen, S., Norman, T., Ward, R., Méndez-Roldán, S., Ellis, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Seabirds
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