This Educational Research Brief summarizes how birds and bats interact with wind turbines and how that relates to potential collision events and behavioral responses, including avoidance. Given the lack of empirical studies quantifying mortality at offshore wind turbines, inference was based on offshore activity patterns of birds and bats, collision risk from land-based wind farms, and mortality data from other offshore structures. In general, birds and bats respond differently to wind turbines and wind energy facilities, with some species of bats showing some level of attraction and some species of birds exhibiting attraction, displacement, or avoidance behaviors. The Brief also reviews how technologies (e.g., radar, thermal cameras) used to study the behavior of birds and bats may help refine monitoring and minimization strategies.
Bat and Bird Interactions with Offshore Wind Energy Development
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The Brief was reviewed by external subject matter experts (Dr. Pamela Loring, US Fish and Wildlife Service; Kate Williams, Biodiversity Research Institute; Dr. Trevor Peterson, Stantec; Robin Brabant, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences) and the SEER Science and Technical (S&T) Advisory Committee. These subject matter experts also participated in a panel discussion during the SEER Webinar on Bat and Bird Interactions with Offshore Wind Energy.
View more SEER Educational Research Briefs, webinar recordings, and other resources here.
The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document.
| Title | Author | Date Sort ascending | Content Type | Technology | Stressor | Receptor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| An Updated Review of Hypotheses Regarding Bat Attraction to Wind Turbines | Guest, E., Stamps, B., Durish, N., Hale, A., Hein, C., Morton, B., Weaver, S., Fritts, S. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Attraction, Collision, Noise | Bats | |
| Influencing Activity of Bats by Dimly Lighting Wind Turbine Surfaces with Ultraviolet Light | Cryan, P., Gorresen, P., Straw, B., Thao, S., DeGeorge, E. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Bats | |
| Assessing fatality minimization for hoary bats amid continued wind energy development | Friedenberg, N., Frick, W. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Bats | |
| When speed matters: The importance of flight speed in an avian collision risk model | Masden, E., Cook, A., McCluskie, A., Bouten, W., Burton, N., Thaxter, C. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Collision | Birds | |
| Bat Workgroup Report for the State of the Science Workshop on Wildlife and Offshore Wind Energy 2020: Cumulative Impacts | Hein, C., Williams, K., Jenkins, E. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Collision | Bats | |
| Atlantic Marine Assessment Program for Protected Species: FY15 – FY19 | Palka, D., Aichinger Dias, L., Broughton, E., Chavez-Rosales, S., Cholewiak, D., Davis, G., DeAngelis, A., Garrison, L., Haas, H., Hatch, J., Hyder, K., Jech, M., Josephson, E., Mueller-Brennan, L., Orphanides, C., Pegg, N., Sasso, C., Sigourney, D., Soldevilla, M., Walsh, H. | Report | Habitat Change, Noise | Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning | ||
| The State of the Science on Operational Minimization to Reduce Bat Fatality at Wind Energy Facilities | Whitby, M., Schirmacher, M., Frick, W. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Bats | |
| Eagle fatalities are reduced by automated curtailment of wind turbines | McClure, C., Rolek, B., Dunn, L., McCabe, J., Martinson, L., Katzner, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Northern gannets (Morus bassanus) are strongly affected by operating offshore wind farms during the breeding season | Peschko, V., Mendel, B., Mercker, M., Dierschke, J., Garthe, S. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Birds, Seabirds | |
| Tracking Movements of Migratory Shorebirds in the U.S. Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Region | Loring, P., Lenske, A., McLaren, D., Aikens, M., Anderson, A., Aubry, Y., Dalton, E., Dey, A., Friis, C., Hamilton, D., Holberton, R., Kriensky, D., Mizrahi, D., Niles, L., Parkins, K., Paquet, J., Sanders, F., Smith, A., Turcotte, Y., Vitz, A., Smith, P. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Birds, Shorebirds | ||
| An investigation into the potential for wind turbines to cause barotrauma in bats | Lawson, M., Jenne, D., Thresher, R., Houck, D., Wimsatt, J., Straw, B. | Journal Article | Wind Energy | Collision | Bats | |
| Estimating bat fatality at a Texas wind energy facility: implications transcending the United States–Mexico border | Weaver, S., Jones, A., Hein, C., Castro-Arellano, I. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Bats | |
| Ultrasonic acoustic deterrents significantly reduce bat fatalities at wind turbines | Weaver, S., Hein, C., Simpson, T., Evans, J., Castro-Arellano, I. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Bats | |
| AWWI Technical Report: 2nd Edition: Summary of Bat Fatality Monitoring Data Contained in AWWIC | Allison, T., Butryn, R. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Bats | |
| Stakeholder Workshop: Scientific Research Framework to Understand the Effects of Offshore Wind Energy Development on Birds and Bats in the Eastern United States | New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) | Workshop Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Bats, Birds | |
| Paint it black: Efficacy of increased wind turbine rotor blade visibility to reduce avian fatalities | May, R., Nygård, T., Falkdalen, U., Åström, J., Hamre, Ø., Stokke, B. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Waterfowl | |
| Seabird Population Trends and Causes of Change: 1986-2018 Report | Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) | Report | Collision, Habitat Change | Birds | ||
| Assessing fatality risk of bats at offshore wind turbines | Lagerveld, S., Noort, C., Meesters, L., Bach, L., Bach, P., Geelhoed, S. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Collision | Bats, Birds | |
| Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Empirical Evidence Inspiring Priority Monitoring, Research and Management | Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B., Vigin, L. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise | Birds, Seabirds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment | |
| Activity and behaviour of Nathusius' pipistrelle Pipistrellus nathusii at low and high altitude in a North Sea offshore wind farm | Brabant, R., Laurent, Y., Poerink, B., Degraer, S. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Bats | |
| Evaluation of an Acoustic Deterrent to Reduce Bat Mortalities at an Illinois Wind Farm | Romano, W., Skalski, J., Townsend, R., Kinzie, K., Coppinger, K., Miller, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Bats | |
| Impacts to Wildlife of Wind Energy Siting and Operation in the United States | Allison, T., Diffendorfer, J., Baerwald, E., Beston, J., Drake, D., Hale, A., Hein, C., Huso, M., Loss, S., Lovich, J., Strickland, M., Williams, K., Winder, V. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Bats, Birds | |
| Wildlife and Wind Farms - Conflicts and Solutions, Volume 4. Offshore: Monitoring and Mitigation | Perrow, M. | Book | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Collision, Noise | Bats, Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning | |
| Wildlife and Wind Farms - Conflicts and Solutions, Volume 3. Offshore: Potential Effects | Perrow, M. | Book | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment | ||
| Collision and displacement vulnerability to offshore wind energy infrastructure among marine birds of the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf | Kelsey, E., Felis, J., Czapanskiy, M., Pereksta, D., Adams, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement | Birds | |
| Quantifying avian avoidance of offshore wind turbines: Current evidence and key knowledge gaps | Cook, A., Humphreys, E., Bennet, F., Masden, E., Burton, N. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Birds | ||
| Modeling At-Sea Density of Marine Birds to Support Atlantic Marine Renewable Energy Planning | Winship, A., Kinlan, B., White, T., Leirness, J., Christensen, J. | Report | Marine Energy | Birds | ||
| ORJIP Bird Collision and Avoidance Study | Skov, H., Heinänen, S., Norman, T., Ward, R., Méndez-Roldán, S., Ellis, I. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Birds, Seabirds | |
| Predicting the impacts of wind farms on seabirds: An individual-based model | Warwick-Evans, V., Atkinson, P., Walkington, I., Green, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Collision, Avoidance | Seabirds, Birds | |
| Fatalities at Wind Turbines may Threaten Population Viability of a Migratory Bat | Frick, W., Baerwald, E., Pollock, J., Barclay, R., Szymanski, J., Weller, T., Russell, A., Loeb, S., Medellin, R., McGuire, L. | Journal Article | Wind Energy | Collision | Bats | |
| Wildlife and Wind Farms - Conflicts and Solutions, Volume 1. Onshore: Potential Effects | Perrow, M. | Book | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise | Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Invertebrates, Reptiles, Terrestrial Mammals | |
| Collision and Displacement Vulnerability Among Marine Birds of the California Current System Associated with Offshore Wind Energy Infrastructure | Adams, J., Kelsey, E., Felis, J., Pereksta, D. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Displacement, Collision, Avoidance, Attraction | Seabirds, Birds | |
| Seabirds and Offshore Wind Farms in European Waters: Avoidance and Attraction | Dierschke, V., Furness, R., Garthe, S. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Habitat Change, Avoidance, Attraction | Seabirds, Birds | |
| Wind Energy Development: Methods to Assess Bird and Bat Fatality Rates Post-Construction | Huso, M., Dalthorp, D., Miller, T., Bruns, D. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Bats, Birds | ||
| Avian Fatalities at Wind Energy Facilities in North America: A Comparison of Recent Approaches | Johnson, D., Loss, S., Smallwood, K., Erickson, W. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds | |
| Long-term Bat Monitoring on Islands, Offshore Structures, and Coastal Sites in the Gulf of Maine, mid-Atlantic, and Great Lakes | Peterson, T. | Report | Bats | |||
| Collision Risk Model for "rufa" Red Knots (Calidris canutus rufa) Interacting with a Proposed Offshore Wind Energy Facility in Nantucket Sound, Massachusetts | Gordon, C., Nations, C. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Birds, Shorebirds | ||
| Avian Collision Risk Models for Wind Energy Impact Assessments | Masden, E., Cook, A. | Journal Article | Wind Energy | Displacement, Collision, Avoidance | Birds | |
| A Unifying Framework for the Underlying Mechanisms of Avian Avoidance of Wind Turbines | May, R. | Journal Article | Wind Energy | Displacement, Avoidance | Birds | |
| Developing an Avian Collision Risk Model to Incorporate Variability and Uncertainty | Masden, E. | Report | Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind | Collision, Avoidance | Birds |