Abstract
Offshore wind is expanding worldwide, including in Australia, where the industry is still emerging. Over 25 years, Europe has shown that underwater noise from surveying, construction, operation, and decommissioning can affect marine life from mammals to fishes and invertebrates. Policy has evolved from fragmented mandates to more science-based regulation, though international methodologies remain poorly standardised. The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive represents one attempt to address impacts at the ecosystem scale. Research has shifted from descriptive studies to more quantitative approaches, yet population-level effects remain uncertain and will likely require multi-pressure frameworks. Innovation has advanced mitigation technologies and monitoring tools, but the ‘animal’s perspective’ is still underappreciated: effective management must begin with the sensitivities of the animals themselves.