Abstract
The fast expansion of offshore wind generation in the Baltic and North seas has made efficient marine co-existence frameworks even more important for managing conflicting uses of marine space. While addressing more general policy objectives like energy security and biodiversity conservation, marine co-existence entails creating a balance between offshore wind energy development with such industries as fisheries, shipping, aquaculture, and environmental protection. Based on past research, this article starts with an analysis of marine co-existence as a conceptual framework, separating active marine co-existence—as an interaction between maritime sectors and interests that yields win–win solutions—and passive marine co-existence—with an aim to protect the ecological relevance of unplanned areas. The article then centres on the tools at hand to apply marine co-existence in regulation. Among them are strategic environmental assessments, maritime spatial planning, feasibility planning, procurement policies, and permit-granting procedures—mostly environmental impact assessments and licensing. Inspired by national legal systems, the European Union/European Economic Area, and international legal systems, the article investigates how these instruments help to apply marine co-existence. It contends that although current tools offer a foundation for marine co-existence, their efficacy is limited without specific marine co-existence strategies. More exact policy guidance, integrated regulatory approaches, and more study on cumulative consequences, prioritizing in spatial planning, and cross-sectoral conflict resolution inside increasingly crowded marine habitats are required.