Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).
Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).
View Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States here.
The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.
| Title | Author | Date Sort ascending | Content Type | Technology | Stressor | Receptor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Movement Models to Predict Low-Altitude Flight of Soaring Birds Using Look-Ahead Environmental Factors | Sandhu, R., Tripp, C., Quon, E., Thedin, R., Lanzone, M., Braham, M., Miller, T., Farmer, C., Brandes, D., Katzner, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| The Wind of Change: Mapping Wind Energy Growth and Multi-Species Vulnerability in Sardinia, Mediterranean | Costantino, C., Cerri, J., Fozzi, I., De Rosa, D., Berlinguer, F. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Habitat Change | Birds, Raptors | |
| Bird Survival in Wind Farms by Monte-Carlo Simulation Modelling Based on Wide-Ranging Flight Tracking Data of Multiple Birds During Different Seasons | Yordanov, N., Nabielek, H., Bedev, K., Zehtindjiev, P. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Exploring development of spatially stratified wind turbine collision risk prior distributions for eagles: An application of adaptive management | Howell, P., New, L., Bjerre, E., White, H. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Vulnerability and behavioural avoidance of Golden Eagles near wind farms during the breeding season | Maynard, L., Lemaître, J., Therrien, J., Lecomte, N. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Habitat Change | Birds, Raptors | |
| Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Used to Assess Performance of Automated Detection and Audio Deterrent System for Reducing Wind-Turbine Collison Risk for Golden Eagles | Smith, J., Schneider, S., Zirpoli, J., Terrill, S., Felton, S., Allison, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Estimated golden eagle mortality from wind turbines in the western United States | Gedir, J., Gould, M., Millsap, B., Howell, P., Zimmerman, G., Bjerre, E., White, H. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Summary of Bird Monitoring Reports from Operational Wind Energy Facilities in South Africa | BirdLife South Africa | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Waterfowl | |
| Cumulative collision risk and population-level consequences of industrial wind-power plant development for two vulture species: A quantitative warning | Bounas, A., Vasilakis, D., Kret, E., Zakkak, S., Chatzigiannakou, M., Kapsalis, E., Arkumarev, V., Dobrev, D., Stamenov, A., Stoychev, S., Skartsi, T., Sidiropoulos, L., Halley, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Risk4DRaptors: Prédire les risques de collision des grands oiseaux avec les infrastructures aériennes | Hemery, A. | Thesis | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Avoidance | Birds, Raptors | |
| Effects of wind turbine dimensions on the collision risk of raptors: A simulation approach based on flight height distributions | Schaub, T., Klaassen, R., Zutter, C., Albert, P., Bedotti, O., Bourrioux, J., Buij, R., Chadoeuf, J., Grande, C., Illner, H., Isambert, J., Janssens, K., Julius, E., Lee, S., Mionnet, A., Muskens, G., Raab, R., Rijn, S., Shamoun-Baranes, J., Spanoghe, G., Hecke, B., Waldenstrom, J., Millon, A. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Reconciling wind energy development with bird conservation: A comparative study of flight behaviour in raptors to understand and mitigate wind turbine collision risk | Schaub, T. | Thesis | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Estimating collision risk for whitetailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in onshore wind power environments: Application of spatial modelling frameworks and predictive mapping | Halgunset, G. | Thesis | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Efficacy of non‐lead ammunition distribution programs to offset fatalities of golden eagles in southeast Wyoming | Slabe, V., Crandall, R., Katzner, T., Duerr, A., Miller, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Birds, Raptors | ||
| Fortsetzungsstudie Probabilistik - Das Raumnutzungs-Kollisionsrisikomodell (RKR-Modell) | Mercker, M., Raab, R., Liesenjohann, T., Liedtke, J., Blew, J. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Wirksamkeit des AVES WIND ONSHORE Antikollisionssystems zum Schutz des Rotmilans (Milvus milvus) AVES WIND ONSHORE Antikollisionssystem zum Schutz des Rotmilans (Milvus milvus) Artenschutzfachliche Bewertung | Gross, M., Stieg, J., Hinsch, H. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Reduced survival in a soaring bird breeding in wind turbine proximity along the northern Baltic Sea coast | Nebel, C., Stjernberg, T., Tikkanen, H., Laaksonen, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision, Displacement | Birds, Raptors | |
| Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Detection and Deterrent System in Reducing Golden Eagle Fatalities at Operational Wind Facilities | Felton, S., Perkins, L., Smith, J., Terrell, S. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Winds of Progress: An In-Depth Exploration of Offshore, Floating, and Onshore Wind Turbines as Cornerstones for Sustainable Energy Generation and Environmental Stewardship | Afridi, S. K., Koondhar, M. A., Jamali, M., Alaas, Z. M., Alsharif, M. H., Kim, M-K., Mahariq, I., Touti, E., Aoudia, M., Ahmed, M. M. R. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind | Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Lighting | Bats, Birds, Raptors, Seabirds, Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts | |
| Assessing exposure to wind turbines of a migratory raptor through its annual life cycle across continents | Assandri, G., Bazzi, G., Bermejo-Bermejo, A., Bounas, A., Calvario, E., Catoni, C., Catry, I., Catry, T., Champagnon, J., De Pascalis, F., de la Puente, J., del Moral, J.C., Duriez, O., Evangelidis, A., Gameiro, J., García-Silveira, D., Garcés-Toledano, F., Jiguet, F., Kordopatis, P., Lopez-Ricuarte, L., Martinez, J., Mascara, R., Mellone, U., Molina, B., Morinay, J., Pilard, P., Ramellini, S., Rodríguez-Moreno, B., Romero, M., Sarà, M., Saulnier, N., Tsiopelas, N., Urios, V., Morganti, M., Rubolini, D., Cecere, J. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Displacement | Birds, Raptors | |
| Lack of evasive behaviour by a Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus on impact with a turbine blade at a South African wind farm: causes and mitigations; Absence de comportement évasif d’un Aigle martial Polemaetus bellicosus lors de l’impact avec une pale | Simmons, R., Martins, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Wind Farms and Power Lines Reduced the Territory Status and Probability of Fledgling Production in the Eurasian Goshawk Accipiter gentilis | Husby, M. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Avoidance, Collision, Noise | Birds, Raptors | |
| Predicting the spatial distribution of wintering golden eagles to inform full annual cycle conservation in western North America | Wallace, Z., Bedrosian, B., Dunk, J., LaPlante, D., Woodbridge, B., Smith, B., Brown, J., Lickfett, T., Gura, K., Bittner, D., Crandall, R., Domenech, R., Katzner, T., Kritz, K., Lewis, S., Lockhart, M., Miller, T., Quint, K., Shreading, A., Slater, S., Stahlecker, D. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Birds, Raptors | ||
| Approach Distances of Scottish Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos to Wind Turbines According to Blade Motion Status, Wind Speed, and Preferred Habitat | Fielding, A., Anderson, D., Benn, S., Taylor, J., Tingay, R., Weston, E., Whitfield, D. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Avoidance, Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Long-term impacts of the Smøla wind farm on a local population of white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) | Stokke, B., Dahl, E., Kleven, O., May, R., Nygård, T., Pavón-Jordán, D., Sandercock, B. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision, Displacement | Birds, Raptors | |
| Winter Distribution of Golden Eagles in the Eastern USA | Miller, T., Lanzone, M., Braham, M., Duerr, A., Cooper, J., Somershoe, S. , Hanni, D., Soehren, E., Threadgill, C., Maddox, M., Stober, J., Kelly, C., Salo, T., Berry, A., Martell, M., Mehus, S., Dirks, B., Sargent, R., Katzner, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Birds, Raptors | ||
| Wind farms and Griffon Vultures: Evidence that under certain conditions history is not-always turbulent | Farfan, M., Díaz-Ruiz, F., Duarte, J., Martín-Taboada, A., Munoz, A-R. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision, Displacement | Birds, Raptors | |
| Incidental eagle carcass detection can contribute to fatality estimation at operating wind energy facilities | Hallingstad, E., Riser-Espinoza, D., Brown, S. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions | |
| Detection of wind turbines rotary motion by birds: A matter of speed and contrast | Blary, C., Bonadonna, F., Dussauze, E., Potier, S., Besnard, A., Duriez, O. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Passerines, Raptors | |
| Assessing carcass relocation for offsetting golden eagle mortality at wind energy facilities | Lonsdorf, E., Gerber, J., Ray, D., Slater, S., Allison, T. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| The Tradeoff Between Wildlife Conservation and Renewable Energy: Evidence from Golden Eagles and Wind Turbines | O'Brien, B., Hagerty, N. | Thesis | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Birds, Raptors | ||
| Modeling the Spatial Distribution of Carcasses of Eagles Killed by Wind Turbines | Huso, M., Dalthorp, D., Mintz, J., Nygård, T., May, R. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Pilotstudie: Erprobung Probabilistik/Testing Probabilistics | Mercker, M., Liedtke, J., Liesenjohann, T., Blew, J. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Wind turbines in managed forests partially displace common birds | Rehling, F., Delius, A., Ellerbrok, J., Farwig, N., Peter, F. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Displacement | Birds, Passerines, Raptors | |
| Effectiveness of an artificial intelligence-based system to curtail wind turbines to reduce eagle collisions | Duerr, A., Parsons, A., Nagy, L., Kuehn, M., Bloom, P. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| A utilization distribution for the global population of Cape Vultures (Gyps coprotheres) to guide wind energy development | Cervantes, F., Murgatroyd, M., Allan, D., Farwig, N., Kemp, R., Kruger, S., Maude, G., Mendelsohn, J., Rösner, S., Schabo, D., Tate, G., Wolter, K., Amar, A. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Large soaring raptors vs wind turbines development in the Swiss Alps | Vignali, S., Braunisch, V., Arlettaz, R. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision, Displacement | Birds, Raptors | |
| Decoding Golden Eagle Movement Behavior from High-Resolution, Variable-Rate Telemetry Data Through Bayesian Filtering | Sandhu, R., Tripp, C., Quon, E., Thedin, R., Brandes, D., Braham, M., Miller, T., Duerr, A., Farmer, C. | Conference Paper | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors | |
| Suivi environnemental 2022: Suivi de la mortalité - Parc éolien de la Vallée de Torfou | Habert, T., Yann, M. | Report | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change | Bats, Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors | |
| A review of raptor carcass persistence trials and the practical implications for fatality estimation at wind farms | Wilson, D., Hulka, S., Bennun, L. | Journal Article | Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind | Collision | Birds, Raptors |