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Evaluating the sensitivity of raptors to wind turbine collisions: An integrative approach based on GPS tracking

Journal Article

Title: Evaluating the sensitivity of raptors to wind turbine collisions: An integrative approach based on GPS tracking
Author:
Schaub, T.; Klaassen, R.; Zutter, C.; Albert, P.; Bourrioux, J.; Buij, R.; Chadoeuf, J.; Illner, H.; Janssens, K.; Keller, A.; Lee, S.; Mionnet, A.; Muskens, G.; van Rijn, S.; Rougé, J.; Shamoun-Baranes, J.; Spanoghe, G.; Hecke, B.; Waldenstrom, J.; Millon, A.
Publication Date:
Journal:
Ecological Solutions and Evidence
Volume:
7
Issue:
4
Pages:
e70315
Publisher:
British Ecological Society
Affiliation
Aix-Marseille University, Engie Lab CRIGEN, University of Groningen, Dutch Montagu's Harrier Foundation, Groupe d'Etudes et de Protection des Busards, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Carl von Ossietzky Universitat Oldenburg, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Biologischer Umweltschutz (ABU), Research Institute for Nature and Forest (INBO), Ligue pour la Protection des Oiseaux (LPO), University of Exeter, Natural England, Müskens Fauna, Deltamilieu Projecten, University of Amsterdam, Linnaeus University
Technology:
Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind
Stressor:
Collision
Receptor:
Birds, Raptors
Language:
English

Document Access

Website:
External Link
Attachment: Access File (666.1 KB)

Citation

Schaub, T.; Klaassen, R.; Zutter, C.; Albert, P.; Bourrioux, J.; Buij, R.; Chadoeuf, J.; Illner, H.; Janssens, K.; Keller, A.; Lee, S.; Mionnet, A.; Muskens, G.; van Rijn, S.; Rougé, J.; Shamoun-Baranes, J.; Spanoghe, G.; Hecke, B.; Waldenstrom, J.; Millon, A. (2026). Evaluating the sensitivity of raptors to wind turbine collisions: An integrative approach based on GPS tracking. Ecological Solutions and Evidence, 7(4), e70315. https://doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.70315
@article{Schaub-2026-2143512,
author = {Schaub, T and Klaassen, R and Zutter, C and Albert, P and Bourrioux, J and Buij, R and Chadoeuf, J and Illner, H and Janssens, K and Keller, A and Lee, S and Mionnet, A and Muskens, G and van Rijn, S and Rougé, J and Shamoun-Baranes, J and Spanoghe, G and Hecke, B and Waldenstrom, J and Millon, A},
title = {Evaluating the sensitivity of raptors to wind turbine collisions: An integrative approach based on GPS tracking},
journal = {Ecological Solutions and Evidence},
year = {2026},
month = {oct},
publisher = {British Ecological Society},
volume = {7},
number = {4},
pages = {70315},
doi = {10.1002/2688-8319.70315},
url = {https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2688-8319.70315},
keywords = {Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Collision, Birds, Raptors},
}
Export Citation to BibTex
TY - JOUR
TI - Evaluating the sensitivity of raptors to wind turbine collisions: An integrative approach based on GPS tracking
AU - Schaub, T
AU - Klaassen, R
AU - Zutter, C
AU - Albert, P
AU - Bourrioux, J
AU - Buij, R
AU - Chadoeuf, J
AU - Illner, H
AU - Janssens, K
AU - Keller, A
AU - Lee, S
AU - Mionnet, A
AU - Muskens, G
AU - van Rijn, S
AU - Rougé, J
AU - Shamoun-Baranes, J
AU - Spanoghe, G
AU - Hecke, B
AU - Waldenstrom, J
AU - Millon, A
T2 - Ecological Solutions and Evidence
AB - Wind energy development leads to an increased mortality of birds due to collisions with wind turbines, especially in raptors. To assess the sensitivity of different bird species to wind turbine collisions, predict collision risk and identify effective mitigation measures, detailed information on flight behaviour is essential, but thus far unavailable for many species.Here, we evaluated the sensitivity of breeding birds of six raptor species—Montagu's Harrier (MoH), Hen Harrier, Marsh Harrier, Common Buzzard (CB), Red Kite (RK) and Short-toed Eagle (STE)—to wind turbine collisions by integrating three aspects of flight behaviour, that is time spent in flight, proportion of flights at risk height and distance travelled from the nest location. We used GPS-tracking data collected in 15 study areas in 6 European countries, comprising 280 individuals, 74,501 individual tracking days and 5786 h of high-frequency flight tracks, providing accurate flight height data.The average time spent in flight ranged from 0.5 (CB) to 3.4 h day−1 (MoH) in females and from 1.0 (CB) to 7.4 h day−1 (MoH) in males. The proportion of flights at risk height (32–200 m above ground level) varied between 12.4% (MoH) and 56.4% (RK). The highest sensitivity index (time spent at risk height per year) was found in RK (1.7–7.4 times higher than in the other species).The mean 90% quantile of distance from nest ranged from 0.7 (CB) to 9.8 km (STE) in females, and from 1.0 (CB) to 5.6 km (MoH) in males. With increasing distance from nest, sensitivity (time spent at risk height per km2) decreased with species-specific slopes.Practical implication: These results indicate that flight behaviour explains substantial differences in the sensitivity to wind turbine collisions among raptor species. Our integrative approach to assess sensitivity based on flight behaviour regardless of current exposure allows to prioritise species for the selection of wind farm sites and conservation measures, and can be complemented with other aspects, for example extinction risk. Our findings on spatial sensitivity with respect to nest-turbine distances may inform the siting of wind turbines to minimise collision risk.
DA - 2026/10//
PY - 2026
PB - British Ecological Society
VL - 7
IS - 4
SP - e70315
UR - https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2688-8319.70315
DO - 10.1002/2688-8319.70315
LA - English
KW - Wind Energy
KW - Land-Based Wind
KW - Collision
KW - Birds
KW - Raptors
ER -
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Abstract

  1. Wind energy development leads to an increased mortality of birds due to collisions with wind turbines, especially in raptors. To assess the sensitivity of different bird species to wind turbine collisions, predict collision risk and identify effective mitigation measures, detailed information on flight behaviour is essential, but thus far unavailable for many species.
  2. Here, we evaluated the sensitivity of breeding birds of six raptor species—Montagu's Harrier (MoH), Hen Harrier, Marsh Harrier, Common Buzzard (CB), Red Kite (RK) and Short-toed Eagle (STE)—to wind turbine collisions by integrating three aspects of flight behaviour, that is time spent in flight, proportion of flights at risk height and distance travelled from the nest location. We used GPS-tracking data collected in 15 study areas in 6 European countries, comprising 280 individuals, 74,501 individual tracking days and 5786 h of high-frequency flight tracks, providing accurate flight height data.
  3. The average time spent in flight ranged from 0.5 (CB) to 3.4 h day−1 (MoH) in females and from 1.0 (CB) to 7.4 h day−1 (MoH) in males. The proportion of flights at risk height (32–200 m above ground level) varied between 12.4% (MoH) and 56.4% (RK). The highest sensitivity index (time spent at risk height per year) was found in RK (1.7–7.4 times higher than in the other species).
  4. The mean 90% quantile of distance from nest ranged from 0.7 (CB) to 9.8 km (STE) in females, and from 1.0 (CB) to 5.6 km (MoH) in males. With increasing distance from nest, sensitivity (time spent at risk height per km2) decreased with species-specific slopes.
  5. Practical implication: These results indicate that flight behaviour explains substantial differences in the sensitivity to wind turbine collisions among raptor species. Our integrative approach to assess sensitivity based on flight behaviour regardless of current exposure allows to prioritise species for the selection of wind farm sites and conservation measures, and can be complemented with other aspects, for example extinction risk. Our findings on spatial sensitivity with respect to nest-turbine distances may inform the siting of wind turbines to minimise collision risk.