Abstract
Achieving net-zero emissions requires rapid deployment of renewable and low-carbon energy technologies. Although these systems emit fewer greenhouse gases than fossil fuels, their broader environmental impacts are less well understood. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is applied to evaluate multiple environmental impact categories and increasingly supports sustainability assessment of energy production. This review examines LCA studies (2015–2024) on wind, solar, geothermal, hydropower, e-fuels, and nuclear energy in Europe, following the PRISMA 2020 methodology. Studies reporting quantitative results per kWh were included. Nearly 90% (n = 94) of studies assessed climate impacts, while acidification (56%), resource use (minerals and metals, 51%), and freshwater eutrophication (43%) were analysed less consistently. Climate findings aligned with previous literature, but other impacts showed substantial variability due to methodological differences and data gaps. Key gaps persist in toxicity, biodiversity, and local environmental assessments. More standardised, comprehensive LCA approaches are needed to capture these effects and guide sustainable energy transitions.