TY - JOUR TI - Marine Mammal Noise Exposure Criteria: Initial Scientific Recommendations AU - Southall, B AU - Bowles, A AU - Ellison, W AU - Finneran, J AU - Gentry, R AU - Greene, C Jr AU - Kastak, D AU - Ketten, D AU - Miller, J AU - Nachtigall, P AU - Richardson, W AU - Thomas, J AU - Tyack, P T2 - Aquatic Mammals AB - A group of experts in acoustic research from behavioral, physiological, and physical disciplines was convened over a several year period. The purpose of this panel was to review the expanding literature on marine mammal hearing and on physiological and behavioral responses to anthropogenic sound, and to propose exposure criteria for certain effects. The group employed all available relevant data to predict noise exposure levels above which adverse effects on various groups of marine mammals are expected. Recent advances in these fields and the pressing need for a science-based paradigm to assess the effects of sound exposure were the primary motivations for this effort. Two categories of effects were considered: (1) injury and (2) behavioral disturbance. The proposed criteria for the onset of these effects were further segregated according to the functional hearing capabilities of different marine mammal groups, and according to the different categories and metrics of typical anthropogenic sounds in the ocean. The group achieved many of its objectives but acknowledges certain limitations in the proposed criteria because of scarcity or complete absence of information about some key topics. A major component of these recommendations is a call for specific research on critical topics to reduce uncertainty and improve future exposure criteria for marine mammals. This publication marks the culmination of a long and challenging initial effort, but it also initiates a necessary, iterative process to apply and refine noise exposure criteria for different species of marine mammals.Table 1Sound types, acoustic characteristics, and selected examples of anthropogenic sound sources; note sound types are based on characteristics measured at the source. In certain conditions, sounds classified as pulses at the source may lack these characteristics for distant receivers.Sound TypeAcoustic Characteristics (at source)ExamplesSingle pulseSingle acoustic event; > 3-dB difference between received level using impulse vs equivalent continuous time constantSingle explosion; sonic boom; single airgun, watergun, pile strike, or sparker pulse; single ping of certain sonars, depth sounders, and pingersMultiple pulsesMultiple discrete acoustic events within 24 h; > 3-dB difference between received level using impulse vs equivalent continuous time constantSerial explosions; sequential airgun, watergun, pile strikes, or sparker pulses; certain active sonar (IMAPS); some depth sounder signalsNonpulsesSingle or multiple discrete acoustic events within 24 h; < 3-dB difference between received level using impulse vs equivalent continuous time constantVessel/aircraft passes; drilling; many construction or other industrial operations; certain sonar systems (LFA, tactical mid-frequency); acoustic harassment/deterrent devices; acoustic tomography sources (ATOC); some depth sounder signalsTable 2Functional marine mammal hearing groups, auditory bandwidth (estimated lower to upper frequency hearing cut-off), genera represented in each group, and group-specific (M) frequency-weightings.Functional Hearing GroupEstimated Auditory BandwidthGenera Represented (Number species/subspecies)Frequency-Weighting NetworkLow-frequency cetaceans7 Hz to 22 kHzBalaena, Caperea, Eschrichtius, Megaptera, Balaenoptera (13 species/subspecies)Mlf (lf: low-frequency cetacean)Mid-frequency cetaceans150 Hz to 160 kHzSteno, Sousa, Sotalia, Tursiops, Stenella, Delphinus, Lagenodelphis, Lagenorhynchus, Lissodelphis, Grampus, Peponocephala, Feresa, Pseudorca, Orcinus, Globicephala, Orcaella, Physeter, Delphinapterus, Monodon, Ziphius, Berardius, Tasmacetus, Hyperoodon, Mesoplodon (57 species/subspecies)Mmf (mf: mid-frequency cetaceans)High-frequency cetaceans200 Hz to 180 kHzPhocoena, Neophocaena, Phocoenoides, Platanista, Inia, Kogia, Lipotes, Pontoporia, Cephalorhynchus (20 species/subspecies)Mhf (hf: high-frequency cetaceans)Pinnipeds in water75 Hz to 75 kHzArctocephalus, Callorhinus, Zalophus, Eumetopias, Neophoca, Phocarctos, Otaria, Erignathus, Phoca, Pusa, Halichoerus, Histriophoca, Pagophilus, Cystophora, Monachus, Mirounga, Leptonychotes, Ommatophoca, Lobodon, Hydrurga, and Odobenus (41 species/subspecies)Mpw (pw: pinnipeds in water)Pinnipeds in air75 Hz to 30 kHzSame species as pinnipeds in water (41 species/subspecies)Mpa (pa: pinnipeds in air)Table 3Proposed injury criteria for individual marine mammals exposed to “discrete” noise events (either single or multiple exposures within a 24-h period; see Chapter 2). Sound TypeMarine Mammal GroupSingle PulsesMultiple PulsesNonpulsesLow-frequency cetaceansCell 1Cell 2Cell 3Sound pressure level230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)Sound exposure level198 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mlf)198 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mlf)215 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mlf)Mid-frequency cetaceansCell 4Cell 5Cell 6Sound pressure level230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)Sound exposure level198 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mmf)198 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mmf)215 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mmf)High-frequency cetaceansCell 7Cell 8Cell 9Sound pressure level230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)230 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)Sound exposure level198 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mhf)198 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mhf)215 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mhf)Pinnipeds (in water)Cell 10Cell 11Cell 12Sound pressure level218 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)218 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)218 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)Sound exposure level186 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mpw)186 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mpw)203 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mpw)Pinnipeds (in air)Cell 13Cell 14Cell 15Sound pressure level149 dB re: 20 μPa (peak) (flat)149 dB re: 20 μPa (peak) (flat)149 dB re: 20 μPa (peak) (flat)Sound exposure level144 dB re: 20 μPa2s (Mpa)144 dB re: 20 μPa2s (Mpa)144.5 dB re: 20 μPa2s (Mpa)Table 4Severity scale for ranking observed behavioral responses of free-ranging marine mammals and laboratory subjects to various types of anthropogenic sound.Response score1Corresponding behaviors (Free-ranging subjects)2Corresponding behaviors (Laboratory subjects)20No observable responseNo observable response1Brief orientation response (investigation/visual orientation)No observable response2Moderate or multiple orientation behaviorsBrief or minor cessation/modification of vocal behaviorBrief or minor change in respiration ratesNo observable negative response; may approach sounds as a novel object3Prolonged orientation behaviorIndividual alert behaviorMinor changes in locomotion speed, direction, and/or dive profile but no avoidance of sound sourceModerate change in respiration rateMinor cessation or modification of vocal behavior (duration < duration of source operation), including the Lombard EffectMinor changes in response to trained behaviors (e.g., delay in stationing, extended inter-trial intervals)4Moderate changes in locomotion speed, direction, and/or dive profile but no avoidance of sound sourceBrief, minor shift in group distributionModerate cessation or modification of vocal behavior (duration ~duration of source operation)Moderate changes in response to trained behaviors (e.g., reluctance to return to station, long inter-trial intervals)5Extensive or prolonged changes in locomotion speed, direction, and/or dive profile but no avoidance of sound sourceModerate shift in group distributionChange in inter-animal distance and/or group size (aggregation or separation)Prolonged cessation or modification of vocal behavior (duration > duration of source operation)Severe and sustained changes in trained behaviors (e.g., breaking away from station during experimental sessions)6Minor or moderate individual and/or group avoidance of sound sourceBrief or minor separation of females and dependent offspringAggressive behavior related to noise exposure (e.g., tail/flipper slapping, fluke display, jaw clapping/gnashing teeth, abrupt directed movement, bubble clouds)Extended cessation or modification of vocal behaviorVisible startle responseBrief cessation of reproductive behaviorRefusal to initiate trained tasks7Extensive or prolonged aggressive behaviorModerate separation of females and dependent offspringClear anti-predator responseSevere and/or sustained avoidance of sound sourceModerate cessation of reproductive behaviorAvoidance of experimental situation or retreat to refuge area (£ duration of experiment)Threatening or attacking the sound source8Obvious aversion and/or progressive sensitizationProlonged or significant separation of females and dependent offspring with disruption of acoustic reunion mechanismsLong-term avoidance of area (> source operation)Prolonged cessation of reproductive behaviorAvoidance of or sensitization to experimental situation or retreat to refuge area (> duration of experiment)9Outright panic, flight, stampede, attack of conspecifics, or stranding eventsAvoidance behavior related to predator detectionTotal avoidance of sound exposure area and refusal to perform trained behaviors for greater than a day1Ordinal scores of behavioral response severity are not necessarily equivalent for free-ranging vs laboratory conditions.2Any single response results in the corresponding score (i.e., all group members and behavioral responses need not be observed). If multiple responses are observed, the one with the highest score is used for analysis.Table 5Proposed behavioral response criteria for individual marine mammals exposed to various sound types; specific threshold levels are proposed for single pulses. See the referenced text sections and tables for severity scale analyses of behavioral responses to multiple pulses and nonpulses. Sound TypeMarine Mammal GroupSingle PulsesMultiple PulsesNonpulsesLow-frequency cetaceansCell 1Cell 2Cell 3Sound pressure level224 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)Table 6 & 7Table 14 & 15Sound exposure level183 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mlf)Not applicableNot applicableMid-frequency cetaceansCell 4Cell 5Cell 6Sound pressure level224 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)Table 8 & 9Table 16 & 17Sound exposure level183 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mmf)Not applicableNot applicableHigh-frequency cetaceansCell 7Cell 8Cell 9Sound pressure level224 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)Table 18 & 19Table 18 & 19Sound exposure level183 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mhf)Not applicableNot applicablePinnipeds (in water)Cell 10Cell 11Cell 12Sound pressure level212 dB re: 1 μPa (peak) (flat)Table 10 & 11Table 20 & 21Sound exposure level171 dB re: 1 μPa2s (Mpw)Not applicableNot applicablePinnipeds (in air)Cell 13Cell 14Cell 15Sound pressure level109 dB re: 20 μPa (peak) (flat)Table 12 & 13Table 22 & 23Sound exposure level100 dB re: 20 μPa2s (Mpa)Not applicableNot applicableTable 6Summary of behavioral responses by different species of low-frequency cetaceans exposed to multiple pulses (Cell 2) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); where airgun array volume is stated, this is the total volume for all operating airguns in the array; 1 L = 61 in3. Specific severity scores for each study are given in Table 7, and more details are given in Appendix B. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 1 μPa) over the duration of a pulse.StudyReferencenumber(for Table 7)Subject SpeciesSound sourceType of acousticmeasurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy includedin severityscaleSummary of severityscale analysis(see Table 7)Malme et al. (1983)1Gray whalesSingle airgun (1.64 L) & 20-gun 65.5-L airgun arrayCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureLand-based observations of individuals/groups; movement and respiration patterns during and without airgunsYesExposure RLs 140-180 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0, 1, 3, 5 & 6Malme et al. (1984)2Gray whalesSingle airgun and airgun arrayCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureLand-based observations of individuals/ groups; movement and respiration patterns during and without airgunsYesExposure RLs 140-180 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0, 1, 3, 5 & 6Richardson et al. (1986)3Bowhead whales (feeding)Single airgun (0.66 L) and 30-gun 47-L arrayCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureAerial observations of individuals/groups; movement and respiration patterns during and without airgunsYesExposure RLs 140-180 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0, 1 & 6Ljungblad et al. (1988)4Bowhead whales (feeding)Single airgun (1.3 L) or 18- to 20-gun arrayCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureAerial observations of individuals/groups; movement patterns and behavioral responses during and without airgunsYesExposure RLs 140-180 dB SPL; response severity score: 6Todd et al. (1996)5Humpback whalesExplosionsLimited to nominal measurements of explosives used (not measured on or near subjects)Visual observations of whale behavior before and during use of explosivesNoExposure RLs 150-160 dB SPL; response severity score: 3McCauley et al. (1998)6Humpback whales (migrating)Single airgun (0.33 L) and several arraysCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureAerial and boat-based observations of individuals/ groups; movement and behavioral patterns during and without airgunsNoExposure RLs 150-170 dB SPL; response severity scores: 6 & 7Richardson et al. (1999)7Bowhead whales (migrating)Airgun array (6 to 16 guns; 9 to 25 L)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureAerial surveys of distribution of individuals/ groupsYesExposure RLs 110-140 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0, 1, 5 & 6McCauley et al. (2000)8Humpback whales (socializing)Single airgun (0.33 L)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureBoat-based observations of individuals/ groups; movement and behavioral patterns during and without airgunsYesExposure RLs 140-180 dB SPL; response severity score: 6Miller et al. (2005)9Bowhead whales (feeding)Airgun array (24 guns; 36.9 L)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureVessel-based observations of individuals; aerial surveys of distribution; movement/ diving patterns and behavioral responses during and without airgunsYesExposure RLs 140-180 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Reeves et al. (1984)Not IncludedBowhead whales (migrating)Seismic airgun arrayInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisYesN/AMalme et al. (1985)Not IncludedHumpback whalesSeismic airgun arrayInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AMalme et al. (1986, 1988)Not IncludedGray whalesSingle airgun and airgun arrayInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AKoski & Johnson (1987)Not IncludedBowhead whales (migrating)Seismic airgunInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/ATable 7Number (in bold) of low-frequency cetaceans (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to multiple pulse noise; responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score. A summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “Low-Frequency Cetaceans/Multiple Pulses (Cell 2)” section of this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 6.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 1 μPa)Response score80 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <120120 to <130130 to <140140 to <150150 to <160160 to <170170 to <180180 to <190190 to <2009 8 7 1.0(6) 6 9.5(7)47.4(7)2.2(7)3.4(4,6,8)5.8(1,2,3,6)4.5(1,2,3,4,6)8.3(1,2,4,8,9) 5 1.0(7) 1.0(4)1.0(1,2) 4 3 1.0(1,2)1.0(1,2) 2 1 5.0(7)6.0(7)1.0(7)2.5(1,2,3)3.0(5) 0 59.8(7)17.7(7)1.1(7,9)0.1(9)0.6(3,9)6.8(1,2,3,9)6.3(1,2,9) Table 8Summary of behavioral responses by different species of mid-frequency cetaceans exposed to multiple pulses (Cell 5) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); specific severity scores for each study are given in Table 9 and more details are given in Appendix B. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 1 μPa) over the duration of a pulse.StudyReferencenumber(for Table 9)Subject SpeciesSound sourceType of acousticmeasurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy includedin severityscaleSummary of severityscale analysis(see Table 9)Madsen & Møhl (2000)1Sperm whalesSmall explosives (several per day)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureVessel-based observations of individuals, including visual detection and passive acoustic monitoring of vocalizationsYesExposure RLs 170- 180 dB SPL; response severity score: 0Madsen et al. (2002)2Sperm whalesAirgun array (distant)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureVessel-based observations of individuals, including visual detection and passive acoustic monitoring of vocalizationsYesExposure RLs 120- 140 dB SPL; response severity score: 0Miller et al. (2005)3BelugaAirgun array (24 guns; 36.9 L)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureVessel-based observations of individuals; aerial surveys of distribution; movement/diving patterns and behavioral responses during and without airgunsYesExposure RLs 100- 150 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Akamatsu et al. (1993)4False killer whales (captive)Numerous sounds, including pulse sequencesCalibrated RL measurements made in situ within experimental enclosureVisual observations of behavioral responses within experimental context in laboratory conditionsYesExposure RLs 170- 180 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6André et al. (1997)Not IncludedSperm whalesNatural and artificial pulses (repeated)Insufficient data for this analysisVessel-based observations of individuals; diving patterns and vocal behaviorNoN/AStone (2003)Not IncludedSeveral mid-frequency cetacean speciesSeismic airgun arrays (various)Insufficient data for this analysisVessel-based observations of individuals; sightings data and avoidance behaviorNoN/ATable 9Number (in bold) of mid-frequency cetaceans (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to multiple pulse noise; responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score. A summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “Mid-Frequency Cetaceans/Multiple Pulses (Cell 5)” section of this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 8.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 1 μPa)Response score80 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <120120 to <130130 to <140140 to <150150 to <160160 to <170170 to <180180 to <190190 to <200+9 8 7 6 0.17(3)0.17(3)0.17(3) 1.3(4) 5 4 3 2 1 0.3(2) 0 0.25(3)0.25(3)3.0(2)4.0(2) 6.7(1,4) Table 10Summary of behavioral responses by different species of pinnipeds in water exposed to multiple pulses (Cell 11) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); specific severity scores for each study are given in Table 11 and more details are given in Appendix B. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 1 μPa) over the duration of a pulse.StudyReferencenumber(for Table 11)Subject SpeciesSound sourceType of acousticmeasurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy includedin severityscaleSummary of severityscale analysis(see Table 11)Harris et al. (2001)1Ringed (mainly), bearded, and spotted sealsSingle airgun and 11-gun, 21.6-L arrayRLs measured in situ near individuals observed in defined spatial zonesVessel-based observations of individuals within specified zones over a limited rangeYesExposure RLs 160- 200 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Blackwell et al. (2004b)2Ringed sealsPipe-driving sounds (construction)RLs measured in situ near individuals observed (detailed measurements, including peak pressure, RMS, SEL, and duration)Land-based observations of individuals; movement and response patterns during pipedriving (note that construction activities had been underway for a considerable period before observations)YesExposure RLs 150-160 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 1Miller et al. (2005)3Ringed and bearded sealsAirgun array (24 airguns; 36.9 L)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureVessel-based observations of individuals; movement patterns and behavioral responses during and without airgunsYesExposure RLs 170-200 dB SPL; response severity score: 0Shaughnessy et al. (1981)Not IncludedCalifornia sea lionsSeal bombs (small explosives)Insufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of individual responses over multiple exposuresNoN/AMate & Harvey (1987)Not IncludedCalifornia sea lionsSeal bombs (small explosives)Insufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of individual responses over multiple exposuresNoN/AMoulton et al. (2003, 2005)Not IncludedRinged seals Calibrated measurements made in the area of exposureComplicated by simultaneous exposure to pulse and nonpulse sourcesNoN/ATable 11Number (in bold) of pinnipeds in water (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to multiple pulse noise. Responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score; a summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “Pinnipeds in Water/Multiple Pulses (Cell 11)” section of this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 10.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 1 μPa)Response score80 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <120120 to <130130 to <140140 to <150150 to <160160 to <170170 to <180180 to <190190 to <2009 8 7 6 1.7(1)2.1(1) 45.4(1)5 4 3 2 1 0.3(2) 0 0.7(2)5.3(1)30.3(1,3)0.3(3)9.9(1,3)Table 12Summary of behavioral responses by different species of pinnipeds in air exposed to multiple pulses (Cell 14) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); specific severity scores for each study are given in Table 13 and more details are given in Appendix B. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 20 μPa) over the duration of a pulse.StudyReferencenumber(for Table 13)Subject SpeciesSound sourceType of acousticmeasurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy includedin severityscaleSummary of severityscale analysis(see Table 13)Blackwell et al. (2004b)1Ringed sealsPipe-driving sounds (construction)RLs measured in situ near individuals observed (detailed measurements, including peak pressure, RMS, SEL, and duration)Land-based observations of individuals; movement and response patterns during pipe-driving (note that construction activities had been underway for a considerable period before observations)YesExposure RLs 60-80 dB SPLre: 20 μPa; response severity scores: 0 & 1Perry et al. (2002)Not IncludedHarbor and gray sealsRepeated sonic boomsMeasured sound overpressure levels on breeding beaches, but not RLs at positions of exposed animalsLand-based observations of animal presence, behavior, and heart rate (note long history of sonic booms in the area)NoN/ATable 13Number (in bold) of pinnipeds in air (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to multiple pulse noise; responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score. A summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “Pinnipeds in Air/Multiple Pulses (Cell 14)” section of this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 12.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 20 μPa)Response score50 to <6060 to <7070 to <8080 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <1209 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0.125(1) 0 0.625(1)0.25(1) Table 14Summary of behavioral responses by different species of low-frequency cetaceans exposed to nonpulses (Cell 3) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); specific severity scores for each study are given in Table 15 and more details are given in Appendix C. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 1 μPa).StudyReferencenumber(for Table 15)Subject SpeciesSound sourceType of acousticmeasurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy includedin severityscaleSummary of severityscale analysis(see Table 15)Baker et al. (1982)1Humpback whalesVessel noise and presenceIndividual RLs not reported but vessels identical to previous measurementsVessel-based observations of individual movement and behavioral patterns around vesselsYesExposure RLs 100-140 dB SPL; severity scores: 0 & 6Malme et al. (1983, 1984)2Gray whales (migrating)Playbacks of drilling and machinery noiseRLs measured in situ near individuals observedShore-based observations of individual movement and behavioral patterns around simulated drilling operations/platformsYesExposure RLs 90-150 dB SPL; severity scores: 0 & 6Malme et al. (1986)3Gray whales (feeding)Playbacks of drilling noiseRLs measured in situ near individuals observedVessel-based observations of individual movement and behavioral patterns before and during playbacksYesExposure RLs 100-120 dB SPL; severity scores: 0 & 6Richardson et al. (1990b)4Bowhead whales (migrating)Drilling noise playbacksDetailed and calibrated source and transmission loss measurements allowed good RL estimatesVisual observations of individual movement and behavioral patterns before, during, and after exposure to drilling soundsYesExposure RLs 100-140 dB SPL; severity scores: 0 & 6McCauley et al. (1996)5Humpback whalesVessel noise and presenceRLs measured in situ near individuals observedVisual observations of individual movement and behavioral patterns during vessel approachesYesExposure RLs 110-130 dB SPL; severity score: 6Frankel & Clark (1998)6Humpback whalesLow-frequency M-sequence playbackCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureVisual observations of individual movement and behavioral patterns before, during, and after playbacksYesExposure RLs 120-130 dB SPL; severity score: 6Biassoni et al. (2000); Miller et al. (2000)7Humpback whalesLow-frequency sonar playbackCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureVisual observations of individual movement and behavioral patterns before, during, and after playbacksYesExposure RLs 110-160 dB SPL; severity scores: 2 & 4Croll et al. (2001)8Blue and fin whales (feeding)Low-frequency sonar playbackCalibrated RL measurements and modeling for area of exposureIndividual responses not reported but a general observation of feeding behavior with/without sonarYesExposure RLs 140-150 dB SPL; severity score: 0Palka & Hammond (2001)9Minke whalesVessel noise and presenceRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristicsVisual observations of individual and group movements and behavioral patterns during vessel approachesYesExposure RLs 110-120 dB SPL; severity score: 3Nowacek et al. (2004)10Right whalesPlaybacks of several nonpulsesSubjects wore calibrated tags that measured RL and behavior/movementDetailed measurements of vocal and physical reactions of animals before, during, and after playbacksYesExposure RLs 120-150 dB SPL; severity scores: 0 & 7Dahlheim (1987)Not includedGray whalesPlaybacks of nonpulsesInsufficient data for this analysisVisual and acoustic observations of individualsNoN/ABorggaard et al. (1999)Not includedVarious cetaceansIndustrial noiseSome RL measurements and modeling in areaInsufficient data on individual responses for this analysisNoN/AFrankel & Clark (2000)Not includedHumpback whalesATOC sourceSome RL measurements and modeling in areaInsufficient data on individual responses for this analysisNoN/ASchick & Urban (2000)Not includedBowhead whalesDrillshipsInsufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of individuals around rigsNoN/AFrankel & Clark (2002)Not includedHumpback whalesATOC sourceSome RL measurements and modeling in areaInsufficient data on individual responses for this analysisNoN/AJahoda et al. (2003)Not includedFin whalesVessel noise and presenceInsufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of individuals during approachesNoN/AMobley (2005)Not includedHumpback whalesATOC sourceSome RL measurements and modeling in areaInsufficient data on individual responses for this analysisNoN/ATable 15Number (in bold) of low-frequency cetaceans (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to nonpulses; responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score. A summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “Low-Frequency Cetaceans/Nonpulses (Cell 3)” section of this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 14.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 1 μPa)Response score80 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <120120 to <130130 to <140140 to <150150 to <160160 to <170170 to <180180 to <190190 to <2009 8 7 2.5(10)1.5(10) 6 4.9(2)7.4(1,2,4)16.2(1,2,3,5)13.6(2,5)4.2(1,2)0.8(2) 5 4 3.0(5,7)1.0(7) 1.0(7) 3 1,117(9)0.27(6) 2 0.5(7)4.0(7)5.0(7)2.0(7)1.0(7) 1 01.1(2)82.6(2,3,4)33.9(1,2,3,4)7.08(2,4,6,10)1.45(2,8,10) Table 16Summary of behavioral responses by different species of mid-frequency cetaceans exposed to nonpulses (Cell 6) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); specific severity scores for each study are given in Table 17 and more details are given in Appendix C. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 1 μPa).StudyReferencenumber(for Table 17)Subject SpeciesSound sourceType of acousticmeasurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy includedin severityscaleSummary of severityscale analysis(see Table 17)Watkins & Schevill (1975)1Sperm whalesPingersRLs measured in situ near individuals observedPassive acoustic monitoring of vocal output of individuals during exposureYesExposure RLs 80-90 dB SPL; severity score: 3Awbrey & Stewart (1983)2BelugasPlaybacks of drilling soundsRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristicsVisual observations of individual and group movements and behavioral patterns during exposure and control trialsYesExposure RLs 110-150 dB SPL; severity scores: 0, 1, 2 & 6LGL & Greeneridge (1986)3Belugas and narwhalsShip and ice-breaking noiseCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureIce-based and aerial observations of groups of animals; movement and behavioral patterns before, during, and after ice-breakingYesExposure RLs 90-120 dB SPL; severity scores: 0, 1, 2, 3 & 8Richardson et al. (1990b)4BelugasPlaybacks of drilling soundsRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristics plus sonobuoy dataIce-based and aerial observations of individual and group movements and behavior during exposure and control trialsYesExposure RLs 100-130 dB SPL; severity scores: 0, 1, 3 & 4Gordon et al. (1992)5Sperm whalesVessel noise and presenceCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureVessel-based observations and passive acoustic monitoring of individuals; movement patterns and behavioral responsesYesExposure RLs 110-120 dB SPL; severity score: 3Palka & Hammond (2001)6White-sided and white-beaked dolphinsVessel noise and presenceRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristicsVisual observations of individual and group movements and behavioral patterns during vessel approachesYesExposure RLs 110-120 dB SPL; severity score: 3Morton & Symonds (2002)7Killer whalesVarious AHDsRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristicsCensus data for individual and group sightings used to estimate “exclusion” zonesYesExposure RLs 140-150 dB SPL; severity score: 8Buckstaff (2004)8Bottlenose dolphinsVessel noise and presence (approaches)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposurePassive acoustic monitoring of individual vocal output during vessel approachesYesExposure RLs 110-120 dB SPL; severity score: 2NRL (2004a, 2004b); NMFS (2005)9Killer whalesMid-frequency active military sonarSome calibrated RL measurements and RL estimates from modeling source and environmental characteristicsVisual observations of individual and group movements and behavioral patterns before, during, and after incidental exposureYesExposure RLs 160-170 dB SPL; severity score: 6Monteiro-Neto et al. (2004)10Tucuxi (river dolphins)Dukane® Netmark ADDsRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristicsVisual observations of individual and group movements and behavioral patterns during exposure and control trialsYesExposure RLs 110-120 dB SPL; severity score: 6Morisaka et al. (2005)11Indo-Pacific dolphinsVessel noise and presenceCalibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposurePassive acoustic monitoring of individual vocal output during vessel approachesYesExposure RLs 120-130 dB SPL; severity score: 5Nachtigall et al. (2003)12Bottlenose dolphins (captive)Nonpulse noise (bands)Calibrated RL measurements in situ within test enclosureVisual observations of behavioral responses within experimental lab contextYesExposure RLs 170-180 dB SPL; severity score: 6Finneran & Schlundt (2004)13Bottlenose dolphins (captive)Nonpulse noise (tones)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ within test enclosureVisual observations of behavioral responses within experimental context in laboratory conditionsYesExposure RLs 180-200 dB SPL; severity scores: 0 & 8Rendell & Gordon (1999)Not includedLong-finned pilot whalesActive military sonarInsufficient data for this analysisPassive acoustic measurements of whistle ratesNoN/AChilvers & Corkeron (2001)Not includedBottlenose dolphinsVessel noise and presenceInsufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of individual foraging behaviorNoN/ABordino et al. (2002)Not includedFranciscana dolphinsADDsInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AWilliams et al. (2002)Not includedKiller whalesVessel noise and presenceAcoustic measurements of source levels but no estimates of RLVisual observations of movement and diving behaviorNoN/ACox et al. (2003)Not includedBottlenose dolphinsADDsInsufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of movement and diving behaviorNoN/AHastie et al. (2003)Not includedBottlenose dolphinsVessel noise and presenceInsufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of movement and diving behaviorNoN/ALusseau (2003)Not includedBottlenose dolphinsVessel noise and presenceInsufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of movement behaviorNoN/AFoote et al. (2004)Not includedKiller whalesGeneral increase in vesselsInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data on individual exposures/responses for this analysisNoN/ATable 17Number (in bold) of mid-frequency cetaceans (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to nonpulses; responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score. A summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “Mid-Frequency Cetaceans/Nonpulses (Cell 6)” section of this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 16.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 1 μPa)Response score80 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <120120 to <130130 to <140140 to <150150 to <160160 to <170170 to <180180 to <190190 to <2009 8 1.0(3)7.0(3) 5.0(2) 1.0(7) 5.0(13)1.5(13)7 6 3.0(2,10)1.0(2) 1.0(9)6.0(12) 5 1.0(11) 4 1.0(4)2.0(4) 35.0(1) 4.0(3,5)134(4,6)1.0(4) 2 15.0(2,3,8) 1 1.0(4)1.0(2,3)1.0(2,4) 0 8.0(3,4)2.0(2,4)1.0(2,4) 1.0(2) 3.0(13)1.5(13)Table 18Summary of behavioral responses of high-frequency cetaceans exposed to nonpulses (Cell 9) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); specific severity scores for each study are given in Table 19 and more details are given in Appendix C. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 1 μPa).StudyReferencenumber(for Table 19)Subject SpeciesSound sourceType of acousticmeasurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy includedin severityscaleSummary of severityscale analysis(see Table 19)Culik et al. (2001)1Harbor porpoises (wild)PICE pingerRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristicsVisual observations of individual and group movements and behavioral patterns before and following deploymentYesExposure RLs 80-120 dB SPL; response severity score: 0 & 6Olesiuk et al. (2002)2Harbor porpoises (wild)Airmar® AHDsRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristicsVisual observations of individual and group movements and behavioral patterns before and following deploymentYesExposure RLs 140-160 dB SPL; response severity score: 6Johnston (2002)3Harbor porpoises (wild)Airmar® AHDsRL estimates based on source and environmental characteristicsVisual observations of individual and group movements and behavioral patterns before and following deploymentYesExposure RLs 120-130 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Kastelein et al. (1997)4Harbor porpoises (captive)Various nonpulse sounds (laboratory)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ within test enclosureVisual observations of movement, respiration, and behavior in laboratory conditionsYesExposure RLs 80-120 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0, 4 & 6Kastelein et al. (2000)5Harbor porpoises (captive)Various nonpulse sounds (laboratory)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ within test enclosureVisual observations of movement, respiration, and behavior in laboratory conditionsYesExposure RLs 90-120 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Kasteleinet al. (2005)6Harbor porpoises (captive)Various nonpulse sounds (laboratory)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ within test enclosureVisual observations of movement, respiration, and behavior in laboratory conditionsYesExposure RLs 90-120 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Kastelein et al. (2006a)7Harbor porpoises (captive)Various nonpulse sounds (laboratory)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ within test enclosureVisual observations of movement, respiration, and behavior in laboratory conditionsYesExposure RLs 100-120 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Kraus et al. (1997)Not includedHarbor porpoises (wild)Dukane® pingersInsufficient data for this analysisMeasurements of by-catch rates in commercial fisheriesNoN/ATaylor et al. (1997)Not includedHarbor porpoises (wild)General nonpulse soundsReview analysisReview analysisNoN/AJohnston & Woodley (1998)Not includedHarbor porpoises (wild)Various AHDsInsufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of “exclusion” zonesNoN/ACox et al.(2001)Not includedHarbor porpoises (wild)Various ADDsInsufficient data for this analysisVisual observations of “exclusion” zonesNoN/AKastelein et al. (2001)Not includedHarbor porpoises (captive)Various nonpulse sounds (laboratory)Calibrated RL measurements made in situ near areas of exposureAerial observations of individuals; movement and respiration patterns during and without airgunsNoN/ABarlow & Cameron (2003)Not includedHarbor porpoises (wild)Various ADDsInsufficient data for this analysisMeasurements of by-catch rates in commercial fisheriesNoN/AKoschinski et al. (2003)Not includedHarbor porpoises (wild)Simulated wind turbine noiseCalibrated source-level measurements made but insufficient data on RLVisual monitoring of general distribution patternsNoN/ATable 19Number (in bold) of high-frequency cetaceans (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to nonpulses; responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score. A summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “High-Frequency Cetaceans/Nonpulses (Cell 9)” section of this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 18.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 1 μPa)Response score80 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <120120 to <130130 to <140140 to <150150 to <160160 to <170170 to <180180 to <190190 to <2009 8 7 60.3(4)0.3(4)0.9(1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7)3.3(1,2,4,5,6,7)1.0(3,7) 52.1(2)9.3(2)4.6(2) 5 4 0.1 (4)0.1 (4) 3 2 1 0 12.8 (1,5)23.1 (1,2,5,6)0.4 (4,7)0.1 (7)0.3 (3) Table 20Summary of behavioral responses by different species of pinnipeds in water exposed to nonpulses (Cell 12) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); specific severity scores for each study are given in Table 21 and more details are given in Appendix C. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 1 μPa).StudyReferencenumber(for Table 21)Subject SpeciesSound sourceType of acousticmeasurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy includedin severityscaleSummary of severityscale analysis(see Table 21)Jacobs & Terhune(2002)1Harbor SealsAirmar dB plus II AHDRLs measured in situ in areas where individuals observedVisual observations of individuals and groups of seals; movement and behavioral patterns during and without AHDsYesExposure RLs 120-130 dB SPL; response severity score: 0Costa et atl.(2003)2Elephant sealsATOC (see Appendix B)RLs measured using calibrated archival tags in situ on individuals during exposureArchival tags placed on animals resulted in detailed quantitative measures of individual diving behavior, reponses, and exposure RLs in well-characterized contextsYesExposure RLs 110-140 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0, 3 & 4Kastelein et al.(2006b)3Harbor sealsVarious non-pulse sounds used in underwater data communicationsCalibrated RL measurements made in situ within experimental enclosureIndividual subject positions and the mean number of surfacing behaviors during control and exposure intervalsYesExposure RLs 80-110 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Frost & Lowry (1988)Not includedRinged sealsUnderwater drilling soundsInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/ARichardson et al. (1990b, 1991)Not includedRinged and bearded sealsUnderwater drilling soundsInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/ANorberg & Bain (1994)Not includedCalifornia sea lionsCascade Applied Sciences AHDsCalibrated acoustic measurements taken around arrays of the devicesInsufficient data on individual responses for this analysisNoN/ANorberg(2000)Not includedharbor sealsHADInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AYurk (2000)Not includedHarbor sealsAHDInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AKoschinski et al. (2003)Not includedHarbor sealsSimulated wind turbine noiseRLs measured in situ in areas where individuals observedInsufficient data on individual responses for this analysisNoN/AMoulton et al. (2003)Not includedRinged sealsConstruction noiseInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data on individual responses for this analysisNoN/ATable 21Number (in bold) of pinnipeds in water (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to nonpulses; responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score. A summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “Pinnipeds in Water/Nonpulses (Cell 12)” section of this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 20.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 1 μPa)Response score80 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <120120 to <130130 to <140140 to <150150 to <160160 to <170170 to <180180 to <190190 to <2009 8 7 6 1.0 (3) 5 4 1.0 (2)5.0 (2) 3 1.0 (2)2.0 (2) 2 1 01.0 (3)1.0 (3)1.0 (2)5.0 (1,2) Table 22Summary of behavioral responses by different species of pinnipeds in air exposed to nonpulses (Cell 15) by type of sound source, available acoustic metrics, description of behavioral response (by individual and/or group), and a summary of corresponding severity score(s); specific severity scores for each study are given in table 23 and more details are given in Appendix C. Exposure RLs are given in dB SPL, which are RMS sound pressure levels (dB re: 20 μPa).StudyReference number (for Table 23)Subject speciesSound sourceType of acoustic measurementsType of individual and/or group behavioral responsesStudy included in severity scaleSummary of severity scale analysis (see Table 23)Thorson et al. (1999)1harbor Seals, northern elephant seals, California sea lions, and northern fur sealsAthena 2 IKONOS-1 missile launchRLs measured in situ in and around breeding rookeriesVisual observations of movement and behavior of individuals in breeding rookeries before, during, and after rocket launchesYesExposure RLs 110-120 dB SPL; response severity score: 6Thorson et al. (2000b)2Harbor seals, northern elephant seals, and California sea lionsTitan IV B-28 missile launchRLs measured in situ in and around breeding rookeriesVisual observations of movement and behavior of individuals in breeding rookeries before, during, and after rocket launchesYesExposure RLs 60-70 and 110-120 dB SPL; response severity scores: 0 & 6Berg et al. (2002)3Harbor sealsTitan IV B-28 missile launchRLs measured in situ in and around breeding rookeriesVisual observations of movement and behavior of individuals in breeding rookeries before, during, and after rocket launchesYesExposure RLs 110-120 dB SPL; response severity socre: 6Allen et al. (1984)Not includeHarbor sealsAerial vessel noise and presenceInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AGentry et al. (1990)Not includedNorthern fur sealsUnderground explosions and quarrying operationsInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/ASuryan & Harvey (1998)Not includedHarbor sealsAerial vessel noise and presenceInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficientdata for this analysisNoN/AThorson et al. (1998)Not includedHarbor sealsTitan IV A-18 missile launchRLs measured in situ in and around breeding rookeriesInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/ABorn et al. (1999)Not includedRinged sealsAircraft noise and presenceInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AThorson et al. (2000a)Not includedHarbor SealsTitan II G-13 missile launchRLs measured in situ in and around breeding rookeriesInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/ABerg et al. (2001)Not includedCalifornia sea lions and northern elephant sealsDelta II EO-1 missile launchRLs measured in situ in and around breeding rookeriesInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AMoulton et al. (2002)Not includedRinged sealsIndustrial equipment noise & presenceInsufficient data for this analysisInsufficient data for this analysisNoN/AHolst et al. (2005a, 2005b)Not includedHarbor seals, California sea lions, and northern elephant sealsSmall- and mid-sized missile launchesRLs measured near observed pinnipeds, including peak, RMS, SEL, and durationVisual observations of animal presence and distribution before launches and behavior during and following launchesNoN/ATable 23Number (in bold) of pinnipeds in air (individuals and/or groups) reported as having behavioral responses to nonpulses; responses were categorized into 10-dB RL bins, ranked by severity of the behavioral response (see Table 4 for severity scaling), and combined with other observations having the same RL/severity score. A summary of the individual studies included in this table is given in the “Pinnipeds in Air/Nonpulses (Cell 15)” section in this chapter. Parenthetical subscripts indicate the reference reporting the observations as listed in Table 22.Received RMS sound pressure level (dB re: 20 μPa)Response score50 to <6060 to <7070 to <8080 to <9090 to <100100 to <110110 to <1209 8 7 6 1.0 (1,2,3)5 4 3 2 1 0 1.0 (2) Table 24Research recommendations in various subject areas needed to enhance future marine mammal noise exposure criteria (as discussed in Chapter 5)Research topicGeneral descriptionCritical information needsAcoustic measurements of relevant sound sourcesDetailed measurements needed of source levels, frequency content, and radiated sound fields around intense and/or chronic noise sources.Comprehensive, calibrated measurements of the properties of human-generated sound sources, including frequency-dependent propagation and received characteristics in different environments.Ambient noise measurementsSystematic measurements of underwater ambient noise are needed to quantify how human activities are affecting the acoustic environment.Comprehensive, calibrated measurements of ambient noise, including spectral, temporal, and directional aspects, in different oceanic environments; ambient noise “budgets” indicating relative contribution of natural and anthropogenic sources and trends over time.“Absolute” hearing measurementsAudiometric data are needed to determine functional bandwidth, species and individual differences, dynamic hearing ranges, and detection thresholds for realistic biological stimuli.Carefully controlled behavioral and electrophysiological measurements of hearing sensitivity vs frequency for more individuals and species, particularly for high-priority species, such as beaked whales and mysticetes. Also, detection thresholds for complex biological signals.Auditory scene analysisMeasurements to determine the sophisticated perceptual and processing capabilities of marine mammals that enable them to detect and localize sources in complex, 3-D environments.Measurements of stream segregation, spatial perception, multidimensional source localization, frequency discrimination, temporal resolution, and feedback mechanisms between sound production and hearing systems.Marine mammal behavioral responses to sound exposureMeasurements of behavioral reactions to various sound types are needed, including all relevant acoustic, contextual, and response variables.Carefully constructed observational and exposure experiments that consider not only RL but also source range, motion, signal-to-noise ratio, and detailed information on receivers, including baseline behavior, prior experience with the sound, and responses during exposure.Effects of sound exposure on marine mammal hearing: masking, TTS, and PTSContinued effort is needed on the simultaneous and residual physiological effects of noise exposure on marine mammal hearing.Masked hearing thresholds for simple stimuli in more species and individuals, as well as complex biological signals and realistic maskers; allowance for directional effects; comparative data on TTS-onset and growth in a greater number of species and individuals for nonpulse and pulsed anthropogenic sources; recovery functions after exposures and between repeated exposures.Effects of sound exposure on marine mammal non-auditory systemsPhysiological measurements are needed for both acute and chronic sound exposure conditions to investigate effects on non-auditory systems.Various baseline and exposure-condition measurements, including nitrogen saturation levels; bubble nuclei; the formation of hemorrhages, emboli, and/or lesions; stress hormones; and cardiovascular responses to acute and chronic noise exposure.Particularly sensitive species: beaked whalesBaseline and exposure data on these poorly understood taxa to assess their apparent sensitivity to certain anthropogenic sound sources.Various studies, including measurements and modeling related to (1) hearing sensitivity, (2) diving and vocalization parameters, (3) tissue properties, (4) gas/fat emboli formation and significance, (5) advanced detection capabilities for localizing and tracking them, and (6) behavioral reactions to various anthropogenic and natural sound sources. DA - 2008/01// PY - 2008 VL - 33 IS - 4 SP - 273 EP - 275 UR - https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09524622.2008.9753846 DO - 10.1080/09524622.2008.9753846 LA - English KW - Noise KW - Marine Mammals KW - Cetaceans KW - Pinnipeds ER -